Fairy Tales Are Not The Same As They Are Today - 1392 Words

During the Early Modern Era in Europe, death was a very common experience, where people didn’t care much when someone close to them died. The next child born into the family would take on the name of the dead loved one, replacing them. The main causes of death for peasants during this time were hunger, disease, poor living conditions, and lack of knowledge about health and living. Death was so common; it was a main theme for entertainment in fairy tales. Fairy tales were not the same as they are today. Our society, has adapted them to revolve around a hopeless princess or a damsel in distress. In reality, fairy tales are much darker, extra violent, and gruesome. After all, fairytales are created to scare kids into behaving for their†¦show more content†¦In general, disease was kept close. Pierre Goubert states, â€Å"†¦Often there would only be one bed, in which case everyone would share the same warmth, the same fleas, and the same outpourings...† Almos t everything done happened ins the dirty, diseased, and poorly air flowed home. Without airflow, disease and germs were extremely easy to pass to one another. Since there was only one bed, the leading cause of infant death was babies being suffocated in the bed with their parents. Additionally, children were dying in the first days, weeks, and months of their lives. Because of death was so common in young children, and religion was very important, the parents felt the need to baptize their children right away. But during the fall and winter months this easily killed their children. The weather was cold and the churches did not have heat, in result, the baby certainly got sick and most likely died, due to the very little knowledge of health care. Children were also susceptible to die from accidents because of the lack of supervision and older siblings or grandparents. Since the mortality rate was so high and the average life span was so low, no one was around to help parents take c are of their kids. Peasants were not even alive to make it to their fiftieth birthday. When parents turned

An Organization Environment Can Have A Strong Effect On...

Introduction In our ever changing world organizations are required to change to meet the needs of employees and their customers. The organization environment can have a strong effect on employee satisfaction and productivity. (Bernerth, 2004).Over the past century many elements have changed as the economical boundaries have created the need for these changes. As society changes and the perspective of future leaders grow and inject their personal ideas things will continue to change. Change is relevant and to continue to grow an organization the leaders of that organization must overcome complacency when facing the need to achieve these changes. As more and more workers gain knowledge in trade and improve their education change will†¦show more content†¦My grandchild that is three years old can operate an Iphone and when I was eight I remember getting our first computer in school. Currently one of the fastest agents of change is technology and the capabilities that technology allows us as managers to utilize. As technology changes customers, employees and competition changes as advancement is vital. Bolman and Deal, 2008 introduced four major frames of the organization that must be instilled for continued growth for every organization. These frames include the structural frame, human resource frame, political frame and the symbolic frame. Change is needed for motivation of the employees and continued efforts to strive for better results will also continue to change the organizational structure. As the structure of the organization changes the framework of the human resource department must be capable of changing to employ new strategies for organizational effectiveness. The human resource team is the liaison between the management team and the employees and must be capable of creating new educational experiences that create camaraderie and collaboration. Cultural Influence The impact of influence in the organization comes from the leaders within the organizational structure. Organizational culture has been shown to have a direct influence on staff satisfaction and commitment (Lund, 2003). The impact of the organizational culture can

The Emerging Role of Electronic Markets Free Essays

Internet-based electronic marketplaces leverage information technology to match buyers and sellers with increased effectiveness and lower transaction costs, leading to more efficient, â€Å"friction-free† markets. The Emerging Role of Electronic Marketplaces on the Internet Markets play a central role in the economy, facilitating the Yannis Bakos exchange of information, goods, services, and payments. In the process, they create economic value for buyers, sellers, market intermediaries, and for society at large. We will write a custom essay sample on The Emerging Role of Electronic Markets or any similar topic only for you Order Now Recent years have seen a dramatic increase in the role of information technology in markets, both in traditional markets, and in the emergence of electronic marketplaces, such as the multitude of Internet-based online auctions. Functions of a Market Markets (electronic or otherwise) have three main functions, summarized in Table 1: matching buyers and sellers; facilitating the exchange of information, goods, services and payments associated with market transactions; and providing an institutional infrastructure, such as a legal and regulatory framework, that enables the efficient functioning of the market. In a modern economy, the first two functions are provided by intermediaries, while the institutional infrastructure is typically the province of governments. Internet-based electronic marketplaces leverage information technology to perform these functions with increased effectiveness and reduced transaction costs, resulting in more efficient, â€Å"friction-free† markets. Matching Buyers and Sellers. Markets â€Å"clear† by matching demand and supply. This process of matching buyers’ demand with sellers’ product offerings has three main components: determining Matching uyers and sellers †¢ Determination of product offerings – Product features offered by sellers – Aggregation of different products †¢ Search (of buyers for sellers and of sellers for buyers) – Price and product information – Matching seller offerings with buyer preferences †¢ Price discovery – Process and outcome in determination of prices Fac ilitation of transactions †¢ Logistics – Delivery of information, good, or service to buyer †¢ Settlement – Transfer of payment to seller †¢ Trust – Credit system, reputations, rating agencies like Consumer Reports and Better Business Bureaus Institutional infrastucture †¢ Legal – Commercial code, contract law, dispute resolution, intellectual property protection †¢ Regulatory – Rules and regulations, monitoring, enforcement Table 1. Functions of a market COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM August 1998/Vol. 41, No. 8 35 Establishing a dialogue and a sense of community among customers can create value by enabling the sharing of experiences, problems and solutions, but also allows the collection of important information about individual consumers. product offerings, search, and price discovery. The behavior of buyers, sellers, and intermediaries is motivated by their desire to maximize their private utility. When markets function well, this also leads to an effi cient allocation of productive resources. Viewed this way, markets are the engine and steering system of our economy. Markets provide sellers with information about demand that allows them to employ economic inputs such as capital, technology and labor, and develop products with characteristics that match the needs of buyers. Sellers determine a schedule of product offerings that they expect will maximize their profits based on: †¢ information about buyer demand; †¢ the cost of inputs; †¢ the available technology for production and distribution of the information, goods and services purchased by the buyers; and, †¢ the transaction costs of administering production, distribution, and payment. Buyers select their purchases from the available product offerings after considering factors such as price and product characteristics. In obtaining and processing this information, buyers face search costs. These osts include the opportunity cost of time spent searching, as well as associated expenditures such as driving, telephone calls, computer fees, magazine subscriptions, etc. Typically, sellers exploit these search costs by raising their prices, and thus enjoy higher profits. Similarly sellers may face search costs in locating qualified buyers for their products, such as market research, advertising and sales calls. A key function of markets in our economic system is price discovery, which is the process of determining the prices at which demand and supply â€Å"clear† and trade occurs. For certain markets, such as financial markets, this is their primary function. Markets can employ a number of mechanisms for price discovery. 36 August 1998/Vol. 41, No. 8 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM For instance, some financial markets use one or more of the several types of auctions to determine prices, such as the â€Å"call market† auction at the opening of a trading day at the New York Stock Exchange, when bids are accepted up to a certain time and exchange occurs when the market opens. This is the first price that is communicated via the stock market ticker to the market at large, kicking off a day of â€Å"continuous market† trading. Other markets, such as the traditional automobile dealership, employ negotiation between buyers and sellers until a price is reached. In still other markets, such as the typical department store, merchants make firm offers that customers can either take or leave. Facilitation of Transactions. The matching function of a market establishes a bilateral relationship between a buyer and a seller. After a transaction is agreed upon, the product sold must be transported to the buyer (logistics), and payment must be transferred to the seller (settlement). Markets typically incorporate mechanisms for logistics and settlement: when a travel agent uses an airline reservations system to book a flight, the system will generate the itinerary and the ticket, and will process a credit card payment. Furthermore, market transactions require the establishment of a certain level of trust, which protects buyers, sellers and intermediaries from the opportunistic behavior of other market participants. For instance, this trust role may include banks issuing letters of credit, credit reporting bureaus, or rating agencies such as Consumer Reports and Better Business Bureaus, which keep track of product information and seller reputations, and thus discourage opportunistic behavior. Finally, markets provide the physical infrastructure that allows transactions between the buyers and the sellers to take place. This includes real assets such as physical structures and trading floors, computers and communication networks, and transportation systems. Institutional Infrastructure. The institutional infrastructure specifies the laws, rules and regulations that govern market transactions, such as issues related to contract law, dispute resolution, and intellectual property protection, and provides mechanisms for their enforcement. In addition, the dynamics of electronic markets may raise certain antitrust issues. For example, there are large economies of scale in distribution, as a single online retailer or intermediary can serve a very large market. There are also potential demand-side economies of scale in payment mechanisms and software. These may lead to a winner-takeall market structure [1] with one or a few firms dominating the market. Purchasing a new home – Research city and neighborhood – Find a house – Inspections, title research, appraisals, contracts – Get a mortgage – Moving services – Decorators, furniture, etc. †¢ Planning a vacation – Research destination – Arrange accommodations and tr avel – Purchase maps, books, information – Check out weather, items to take †¢ Purchasing a car – Research make and model – Select a dealer – Get a loan or arrange a lease – Purchase insurance Table 2. Components of consumer processes and transaction/distribution cost How the Internet Affects Markets Electronic marketplaces, especially Internet-based markets, are having a major impact on the roles of markets discussed previously [2, 12]. Product Offerings. Two major emerging trends distinguish products in electronic marketplaces from their traditional counterparts: increased personalization and customization of product offerings, and the aggregation and disaggregation of information-based product components to match customer needs and to support new pricing strategies. Electronic marketplaces support personalization and customization in two ways: †¢ Consumer tracking technology allows the identification of individual buyers; information about these buyers, such as relevant demographics, consumer profiles, or comparison with the known preferences of similar consumers, can be used to discover or estimate their specific preferences. Information-rich products lend themselves to cost-effective customization; for instance, delivering an electronic newspaper tailored to the interests of an individual reader need not be more costly than delivering the same copy to all subscribers. Current personalization and customization technologies use either rule-based systems like Broadvision (www. broadvision. com) that draw upon sets of expert rules, or collaborative filtering systems like the Firefly Network (www. firefly. net) that utilize the feedback and experiences of consumers with a profile of likes and dislikes similar to the targeted buyer. This allows the practice of â€Å"one-to-one marketing,† which is based on understanding individual consumers. For instance, establishing a dialogue and a sense of community among customers can create value by enabling the sharing of experiences, problems and solutions, but also allows the collection of important information about individual consumers. The ultimate objective is to provide customized services according to individual preferences, whether expressed or inferred. Increased selling effectiveness comes from being able to design appropriate products to address the needs of individual consumers, and from being able to identify the moment when a customer’s purchasing decision is most likely to occur and to be prepared for that moment, one step ahead of the competition. When determining their product mix, sellers must decide which product components or features will be included in each product offering. For example, the developer of an operating system must decide which features to implement, and whether they will be marketed and priced individually or in a single bundle. These decisions are driven by the relative cost of different product bundles, which includes the following types of costs: †¢ Production cost: the cost of producing additional units for inclusion in the bundle, including storage, processing, and communications costs incurred in the process. †¢ Transaction and distribution cost: the cost of distributing a bundle of goods and administering the related transactions, such as arranging for payment. †¢ Binding cost: the cost of binding the component goods together for distribution as a bundle, such as formatting changes necessary to include news stories from wire services in a newspaper bundle. Menu cost: the cost of administering multiple prices. If a mixed bundling strategy is pursued, where the available components are offered in different combinations, then a set of n goods may require as many as 2n prices (one for each subset of one or more goods). COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM August 1998/Vol. 41, No. 8 37 c Marginal Costs Mean Valuation c0 Marginal production, distribution, and transactions are high enough to make both bundled and unbundled Unbundled sales dominate sales unprofitable bundling Bundling is more profitable than unbundled sales Distribution Costs d Figure 1. Phase diagram for bundling and unbundling strategies as a function of marginal cost Internet marketplaces are changing the constraints imposed by these costs and thus are fostering new types of intermediaries that create value by aggregating services and products that traditionally were offered by separate industries. For instance, Table 2 shows the components of three processes that generate value for consumers. In traditional markets, these components are provided by separate industries. A consumer in the market for a new car might select a make and model based on the experience collected from test drives, research from auto magazines and Consumer Reports, and recommendations from friends. She would then agree on price, order the vehicle, and take delivery through a car dealer, arrange financing through a bank, and purchase insurance from an insurance company. By dramatically lowering the transaction, distribution and binding costs, the Internet has allowed intermediaries such as Auto-byTel (www. auto-by-tel. com) or Microsoft’s Carpoint (www. carpoint. com) to offer all of these products and services, with the exception of an actual test drive. Similar intermediaries are emerging in other areas, such as the Travelocity (www. travelocity. com) and Microsoft’s Expedia (www. expedia. com) travel services aggregators, or Microsoft’s Boardwalk Web site that will aggregate products and services related to real estate transactions. The Case of Information Goods. Digital information goods, such as news articles, digital images or music, allow perfect copies to be created and distributed almost without cost via the Internet. The Internet is thus precipitating a dramatic reduction in the marginal costs of production and distribution for these goods, while micropayment technologies are reducing the transaction costs for their commercial exchange. Bakos and Brynjolfsson [6] point out that this creates new opportunities for repackaging content through strategies such as bundling, site licensing, subscriptions, rentals, differential pricing and per-use fees. All of these schemes can be thought Figure 2. ComputerESP price comparison engine 38 August 1998/Vol. 41, No. 8 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM of as either aggregating or disaggregating information goods along some dimension. For instance, aggregation can take place across products, as when software programs are bundled for sale in a software suite or when access to various content of an online service is provided for a fixed fee. Aggregation can also take place across consumers, as with the provision of a site license to multiple users for a fixed fee, or over time, as with subscriptions. Many information goods have been bundled solely to save on transaction, distribution and menu costs, yet these costs are much lower on the Internet. Thus software and other types of content may be increasingly disaggregated and metered, as on-demand software applets or as individual news stories and stock quotes. Independent of the cost considerations mentioned previously, Bakos and Brynjolfsson [6] show that aggregation of arge numbers of information goods can be a powerful strategy that results in higher profits for sellers as well as a socially desirable wider distribution of the goods. This is due to the ability of aggregation to change the shape of the demand curve faced by the sellers to one that is easier to exploit. Aggregation can be a surprisingly profitable strategy when marginal production costs are low and consumers are homogeneous. Bakos and Brynjolfsson’s analysis provides a framework to understand the emergence of intermediaries that aggregate online content, such as America Online and Yahoo! , as well as the increasing use of subscription pricing in the sale of information goods by companies such as Netscape, Dow-Jones, or Reuters. Figure 1 graphically summarizes this discussion and depicts the impact of marginal cost c and distribution/transaction cost d on the desirability of bundling large numbers of information goods. Search. Electronic marketplaces lower the buyers’ cost to obtain information about the price and product features of seller offerings as well as the sellers’ cost to communicate information about their prices and product characteristics. For instance, a buyer in the market for a 400MHz Pentium II microprocessor can easily compare the prices of different sellers by using a specialized search engine like Pricewatch (www. pricewatch. com) or ComputerESP (www. computeresp. com), as shown in Figure 2. Similarly, links to manufacturers’ Web sites can be used to obtain detailed information about the product features of different laptop computers. By lowering buyers’ search costs, electronic markets increase economic efficiency. Not only do buyers incur lower costs even after considering more product offerings, they also benefit from being able to identify and purchase products that better match their needs. Several Internet-based technologies assist buyers’ searching: multimedia, high bandwidth, and rating sites provide more product information. Search engines help buyers identify appropriate seller offerings. The search engines can be hierarchical directories (like Yahoo! , generic tools (like AltaVista in early 1998), or specialized tools that work best in the context of specific markets (such as Pricewatch and ComputerESP for computers and peripherals, or Expedia and Travelocity for airline tickets and other travel products). Intelligent agents such as Bargainfinder (bf. cstar. ac. com/bf) or Jango (www. jango. com) have been developed to scout the Web and compare product offerings by price or features on the behalf of the buyers. These technologies keep lowering buyers’ search costs. The lower search costs enable new markets to emerge. For example, low buyer search costs and global reach allowed Onsale. com (www. onsale. om) to create markets in goods like secondhand cameras; otherwise the search costs would be too high to enable potential buyers and sellers to find each other in a conventional market. Several other intermediaries are emerging to facilitate the process of matching buyers and sellers. Among many others they include Yahoo! , Pricewatch, Netbot’s Jango, and several other search engines, Web directories and shopping agents. They also include providers for product information (e. g. , CNet, trade magazines), recommendations and personalization (e. g. , Firefly Network), and info rmation about sellers such as Bizrate. Price Discovery. Electronic marketplaces enable new types of price discovery to be employed in different markets. For example, some airlines auction last-minute unsold seats to the highest bidders, and Web-based auctions at Onsale. com have created for consumer goods markets that function like the financial markets. Intermediaries such as Priceline (www. priceline. com) allow buyers to specify product requirements and the amount they’re willing to pay, and then make corresponding offers to the participating sellers, reversing the traditional functioning of retail markets. Finally, agents such as Kasbah (ecommerce. media. mit. edu/kasbah) and Tete-a-Tete (ecommerce. media. mit. edu/tete-a-tete) that can negotiate purchases on behalf of buyers and sellers, may restructure the price discovery process in Internet marketplaces [11]. The ability to customize products, combined with the ability of sellers to access substantial information about prospective buyers, such as demographics, preferences and past shopping behavior, is greatly improving sellers’ ability to price discriminate—that COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM August 1998/Vol. 41, No. 8 39 is, to charge different prices for different buyers. Price discrimination is a powerful tool that allows sellers to increase their profits, and reduces the consumer surplus enjoyed by buyers. On the other hand, price discrimination enables sellers to service buyers who would otherwise be priced out of the market, an outcome that increases economic efficiency. These new types of price discovery, such as the ability of buyers to make offers and the ability to conduct electronic negotiations between buyer and seller agents, are changing the â€Å"microstructure† of consumer markets. Finance theory has shown that market microstructure affects both the efficiency of markets and the bargaining power of their participants. The increasing importance of electronic commerce emphasizes the need to carry this type of research analysis to electronic marMarkketplaces. It is unclear who the beneficiaup ries of this process will be. The ability to r implement different price discovery mechanisms may result in more efficient marr/2 kets, thus benefiting buyers and hurting inefficient sellers. As menu costs decrease, sellers will move away from fixed pricing, and more prices will become negotiable [7]. While savvy buyers may benefit, the 0 ability to negotiate prices may not be pleasant or result in a good deal, as many visitors to auto dealerships have discovered. Furthermore, when sellers are better informed, they are likely to increase their profits by charging different prices to different buyers. Economic theory predicts that buyers with more bargaining power, typically the more affluent ones, will fare better in this situation. Facilitation. The cost of logistics—the process of transporting products from the seller to the buyer— has been estimated at more than 10% of the GNP [8]. Electronic marketplaces improve information sharing between buyers and sellers, helping lower the cost of logistics and promoting quick, just-intime deliveries and reduced inventories. The distribution of information goods such as newspapers, music, videos and software, is likely to be completely transformed, as the information infrastructure will replace physical distribution systems. Sellers in Internet marketplaces are typically responsible for delivery to their customers, and increasingly contract with third-party providers for direct delivery from the manufacturer to the final consumer, reducing costs and time-to-delivery. Thus, direct sellers like Dell Computer are squeezing out traditional intermediaries such as wholesalers and distributors, while delivery providers such as FedEx and 40 August 1998/Vol. 41, No. 8 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM UPS are emerging as major Internet intermediaries, because of their logistics expertise and their economies of scale in distribution. Electronic payment systems will further lower transaction costs in Internet marketplaces, and micropayment systems will lower the cost of small transactions, enabling new pricing strategies such as the metering of software use. As face-to-face marketplaces are replaced by electronic ones, there is increasing need to protect market participants from opportunistic behavior. Technologies such as public key cryptography can provide security and authentication of transactions, while intermediaries like Bizrate (www. bizrate. om) will use information from consumers to keep track of merchants’ reputaAs search costs fall from very high to moderate, new markets emerge, and both sellers and buyers benefit. However, if search costs continue to fall, market prices fall and sellers are made worse off, while buyers benefit from the lower prices and their impr oved ability to find products that fit their needs. r 2/4t r 2/t market breakdown buyer search cost Figure 3. The impact of buyer search costs in a differentiated market tions. Credit bureaus and credit card companies will provide credit information or guarantee payment for consumers. Finally, intermediaries like Verisign (www. verisign. om) are emerging as â€Å"certificate authorities† that match legal identities to the possession of cryptographic keys—a public key infrastructure. Internet Marketplaces and Competition Impact of Lower Search Costs. The ability of Internet marketplaces to reduce search costs for price and product information may significantly affect competition. Bakos [4, 5] shows that lower buyer search costs in electronic marketplaces promote price competition among sellers. This effect will be most dramatic in commodity markets, where intensive price competition can eliminate all seller profits. It will also be significant in markets where products are differentiated, reducing the monopoly power enjoyed by sellers, and leading to lower prices and seller profits. Figure 3 shows the equilibrium prices for a differentiated good with zero marginal cost, which The dynamics of friction-free markets are not attractive for sellers that had previously depended on geography or customer ignorance to insulate them from the low-cost sellers in the market. consumers value at r and has a degree of differentiation t. As search costs fall from very high to moderate, new markets emerge, and both sellers and buyers benefit. However, if search costs continue to fall, sellers are made worse off since buyers can more easily find the lowest-cost seller, while buyers benefit from the lower prices and their improved ability to find products that fit their needs. The dynamics of friction-free markets are not attractive for sellers that had previously depended on geography or customer ignorance to insulate them from the low-cost sellers in the market. As geography becomes less important, new sources of product differentiation, such as customized features or service or innovation, will become more important, at least for those sellers who don’t have the lowest cost of production. Also, like an arms race in which both sides develop increasingly powerful weapons, sellers can exploit the reduction in menu costs to compensate for the lower search costs in electronic marketplaces. Specifically, sellers can make it difficult to compare the price of alternative product offerings, and they can attempt to collect information about buyers that allows more effective price discrimination. Airlines, for example, have implemented extremely complicated and ever-changing fare structures, flight restrictions, and ticket availability, sometimes offering hundreds of fares for travel between certain pairs of destinations. It is also interesting to note that when informational inefficiencies prevail, a large number of sellers does not necessarily result in a competitive and efficient market. If search costs are high, individual sellers do not have a strong incentive to lower their prices because few buyers would discover them. As the number of sellers increases, it becomes more difficult for buyers to locate discounters, and thus the market may become more monopolistic as the number of sellers increases! This behavior is likely in certain markets with little or no advertising, such as some markets for professional legal and medical ser- ices. Internet marketplaces could provide price cutters with the means to reach a larger fraction of the buyers, and thus undermine the monopolistic nature of these markets. While there is much speculation about the effect that electronic marketplaces have on prices, thus far there has been little systematic analysis. One exploratory study by Bailey and Brynjolfsson [3] did not find much evidence that prices on the Internet were lower than prices for the same goods sold via traditional retail channels. Their analysis was based on data from 52 Internet and conventional retailers for 337 distinct titles of books, music compact discs, and software. Bailey and Brynjolfsson provide several possible explanations for their unexpected findings, including the possibility that searching on the Internet during the sample period was not as easy as is sometimes assumed, that the demographics of the typical Internet user encouraged a higher price equilibrium, that many of the Internet retailers were still experimenting with pricing strategies, and that Internet retailers were differentiating their products (for example, via delivery options or customized recommendations). Clearly, more empirical research is needed in this area. Increasing Differentiation and Lowering the Cost of Product Information. A higher degree of product differentiation leads to an increase in seller profits, which may partially or completely offset the decrease caused by lower search costs. Sellers in electronic markets will thus want increasingly to differentiate their products, possibly utilizing the personalization and customization technologies discussed earlier . Buyers in a differentiated market face two types of search costs: the cost of obtaining price information and the cost of obtaining information about the product characteristics of a seller’s offering. If sellers can control the type of electronic market introduced, they should favor a system emphasizing product information rather than price-shopping. COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM August 1998/Vol. 41, No. 8 41 A key variable for such a system is the cost of product information relative to the cost of price information about the product. For instance, an electronic marketplace designed to promote priceshopping makes it easy to compare price information, but might still require a higher-cost inquiry (such as a visit) to obtain detailed product information. For example, a buyer looking for a computer monitor on the Internet can easily compare prices from a large number of sellers, but then must obtain and evaluate the monitors’ specifications, assess the sellers’ reputations and return policies, and ideally locate a display model at a showroom or at a colleague’s office. By contrast, an electronic marketplace can be designed to promote competition based on product features. For example, high-quality multimedia product descriptions in standardized formats could help identify product offerings matching the buyer’s preferences, while price information could be left out of these descriptions or could be obscured by offering a large number of prices and making it difficult for the buyers to figure out which price actually applies. tained as electronic intermediaries gain a significant market share. Instead, the physical experience component might be unbundled to a physical intermediary. Auto-by-Tel, for example, may pay a fee to the intermediary where the test drive took place, a service that could be provided by a traditional dealership, but also by a specialized showroom or a car rental company. Internet-based electronic marketplaces are still at a formative stage, and it is hard to fully predict their impact on the structure of markets. However it is becoming clear that they will promote greater economic efficiency, and help sustain economic growth. In the process, they are creating major transformations, full of strategic opportunities for intermediaries ready to compete by adding value for buyers and sellers rather than by exploiting information asymmetries.   References 1. Arthur, B. Increasing returns and the new world of business. Harvard Business Rev. , (July–Aug. 1996), 100–109. 2. Bailey, J. and Bakos, Y. An exploratory study of the emerging role of electronic intermediaries. International J. Electronic Commerce 1, 3 (Spring 1997). 3. Bailey, J. and Brynjolfsson, E. In search of friction-free markets: An exploratory analysis of prices for books, CDs and software sold on the Internet. In Proceedings of the 25th Telecommunications Policy Research Conference (Alexandria, VA, Sept. 1997). www. stern. nyu. edu/~bakos/big. pdf. How to cite The Emerging Role of Electronic Markets, Papers

Wheeling and Dealing the Zirconia Gt free essay sample

Her first and foremost concern was price. Darrel, who knew this, somehow managed to convince her that she would get so many discounts. But actually she had to pay the almost the full amount. ? Ques 2. Would you call it a win-win negotiation/deal or not? Give reasons. A Win-Win Negotiating Orientation is one of the negotiation orientations where both parties are satisfied. In this case both parties were in the Win-Win situation till the time Darrel and Marcia finally went for formal paperwork. However, the deal turned out to be Win-Lose situation with Marcia in the losing side. Darrel charged $80 processing fee, along with $105 mysterious charged; which later Darrel admitted as paint sealant to protect customer’s investments. Later Darrel convinced her to pay further a charge of $500 as warranty available on the Zirconia (car’s model name). Finally, when Darrel took Marcia to finance window, again Marcia was charged $230 as Life insurance fees which makes the total of $915, the amount Marcia has to pay after getting all the discounts offered by Darrel. We will write a custom essay sample on Wheeling and Dealing: the Zirconia Gt or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page So whatever discount she was given, ultimately was taken back from her in some or the other way. Hence we can say it was not a WIN-WIN negotiation, as Marcia was not satisfied with the deal. ? Ques 3. What were Darrels strengths weaknesses as a negotiator? Strengths: 1. Number crunching; he was quick at calculations. 2. He had knowledge about both cars. 3. He could understand that Marcia was interested in buying the car. He could make out she was naive and she lacked sufficient information about the car. He could take advantage of it. By mentioning about the difficulties he had to face to get the sales manager convinced, he could convince her that what he offered was a very good deal for her. 4. Since he could understand price was her concern, he could make it appear like she’s getting a high discount. Weakness: 1. What worked with Marcia wouldn’t work with all customers. 2. Many hidden costs were involved; the deal wasn’t transparent 3. The claims weren’t totally honest, which makes it difficult to sustain in the long run. Ques 4. If you were in place of Marcia, how would you have proceeded with the negotiations (assuming that you did want to buy the Zirconia GT). Give your answer quoting specific instances from the case. If I was in place of Marcia I would not have expressed overt excitement for the car after it was first shown to me. Unlike Marcia who said, â€Å"I always wanted a car like this†. My response would have been, â€Å"It seems a bit overloaded for my needs, but it looks like a nice car so I would like to take it out for a spin†. After driving the car I would have said, â€Å"I really liked the car’s design, handling and drive but I definitely will not go for full option list and quad stereo. Also magnesium hubs don’t suit my taste, so won’t be taking those. How much is the cost†? After hearing the price at $15,750 I would have told him that it was way beyond my budget and what would be the price sans extra options. Darrel was very smart in judging the body language of Marcia and offered a trade-off of $1000; he knowingly quoted a higher trade-off and added a stipulation of getting it checked with specialist. It was just to lure her into the deal. He also offered her various options at cost but instead of saying with conviction that she did not need those options in the first place, Maria seemed confused and got herself cornered. My response in such case would be, â€Å"Please talk with your specialist and give me a confirmed trade-off. Also I really don’t need those option s, however you say that not all options can be removed, I will still consider it but given that am offered some discount in terms of a free extended warranty or a waiver in dealer charges†. If he was reluctant to offer me the above-mentioned discounts I would have told him that being a new customer I could be a permanent taker of his services and also could spread a good word among my friends. In the end before making the deal I would have asked him to make a final addition of all the charges and give me the final take away cost so that I could get back to him later on the same day. In the meanwhile I would have consulted other dealers in the area.

Romeo and Juliet Charavter Analysis free essay sample

A romantic, a determined, an unpredictable: these are all one-word labels for three very complex characters. Romeo, Juliet, and Mercutio make up a triangle of tangled emotions and situations in William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. Therefore, Shakespea  has created multidimensional characters who have both strengths and weaknesses. Romeo is impulsive and romantic. Romeo loves the idea of â€Å"being in love,† but he does not know what true love really feels like. After the fight in the streets of Verona in Act I, Romeo’s father says something about his son’s behavior to Benvolio, â€Å"Away from the light steals home my heavy son,/ And private in his chamber pens himself,/ Shuts up his windows, locks far daylight out,/ And makes himself an artificial night:†(Shakespeare 1. 1. 145-148). Romeo is sick with his love for Rosaline, has locked himself away by day to pine for her. He wanders the orchards at night to be alone and dream of his true love, and he isolates himself from his family and friends. We will write a custom essay sample on Romeo and Juliet Charavter Analysis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Although Romeo is impulsive, he can also be romantic. Romeo sees Juliet at her window. Romeo hears Juliet talking to herself on her balcony and at first glance he is speechless, but then he says, â€Å"But Soft! What light through yonder breaks? / It is the East, and Juliet is the sun! / Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, / Who is already sick and pale with grief† (Shakespeare 2. 2. 3-5). Romeo is comparing Juliet’s beauty to the sun and that the moon looks sick and green because it is jealous of her. He leaves just before dawn to plan their wedding just after they are done talking about their love for each other. Juliet is cautious and determined. Romeo meets Juliet at her balcony and they stand there talking about love for each other. What she says next to Romeo is, â€Å"I have no joy of this contract tonight. / It is too rash, too unadvised, too sudden; / Too like the lightning, which doth cease to be/ Ere one can say â€Å"it lightens. † Sweet, goodnight! † (Shakespeare 2. 2. 128-131). Juliet does not want to move too fast in their relationship for it to be over just as fast as it started. She also does not want to be â€Å"left in the dark† and heart broken. Even though Juliet is cautious, she is also very determined to get what she wants. As we know, Juliet is a Capulet and Romeo is a Montague, they are supposed to hate each other. Juliet does not care, though; she claims that she has to be with her Romeo no matter the consequences. Juliet says, â€Å"O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art though Romeo? / Deny thy father and refuse thy name! / Or, if thou wilt not, be but sworn my love, / And I’ll no longer be a Capulet. † (Shakespeare 2. 2. 35-38). In order for Juliet and Romeo to be together, Juliet will have to give up her family. Because Juliet is said to be so in love with Romeo, she is willing to do just that. Mercutio is aggressive and humorous. At the start of Act 3, Mercutio starts to fight Tybalt. Mercutio is actually fighting Tybalt for Romeo, because Romeo says he will not fight anyone. Mercutio ends up drawing his sword and says, â€Å"Good Kings of Cats, nothing but one of your/ nine lives. That I mean to make bold withal, and, as / you shall use me hereafter, dry- beat the rest of the/ eight. Will you pluck your sword out of his pilcher / by the ears? Make haste, lest mine be about your ears / ere it be out. † (Shakespeare 3. 1. 80-85). As Mercutio and Tybalt are about to start fighting, Mercutio is threatening to take one of his nine lives as if he is a cat. Mercutio also meant that he would give a beating to the eight remaining lives. On the other hand, Mercutio is also incredibly witty. Mercutio has a famous speech that he told Romeo which was a spinning tale of the Queen Mab. Mercutio was telling this speech to Romeo, because he was trying to cheer him up. Part of the Queen Mab was, â€Å"This is the hag, when maids lie on their backs, / That presses them and learns them first to bear, / Making them women of good carriage. The Queen Mab was mainly about bringing dreams to people, but at time it would get sexual. Mercutio’s speech is full of laughter. Seeing examples from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet shows how he has created multidimensional characters who have both strengths and weaknesses. Romeo and Juliet thought they knew what true love was, but in reality it was just lust. For Mercutio, he was just a guy in-over his head. A romantic, a determined, an unpredictable: these are all one-word labels for Romeo, Juliet, and Mercutio.

Choose A Subject From The Last Of The Mohicans To Use As The Topic For

Choose A Subject From The Last Of The Mohicans To Use As The Topic For Choose A Subject From The Last Of The Mohicans To Use As The Topic For A Definition Essay. Some – Essay Example ELEMENTS OF THE SENTIMENTAL AND FRONTIER ADVENTURE IN THE FILM The film is a very interesting historical film.It was set up during the French and Indian War in 1757. During this war, the French called on allied Native American tribes to battle with the tough British in the region (Cooper, 24). Apart from the plot, the film offers many themes and the most interesting question that arises is: How does The Last of the Mohicans draw together elements of the syrupy novel and the frontier adventure story?Fact oneCooper incorporates and entangles elements of the sentimental novel, such as marriage and love and sentiments of the frontier adventure, such as racial conflict and warfare. Cooper develops psychological tensions and friendship among the characters that are basically of both genres.Fact twoApart from the friendship and psychological tensions, Cooper utilizes female characters to establish the narrative weight of sentimentality. In addition, he introduced these women characters into the struggle state of affairs that define the frontier venture. In this film; Cooper creates a warfare environment characterized by emotions and dramas, through permeating it with syrupy elements of romance (Cooper, 65). Fact threeCooper heightens the film’s drama by demonstrating the Indian culture as good, Uncas, as opposed to the Indian figure of evil, Magua, as revealed in the contest for the love of Cora Munro-the white girl (Cooper, 45). He uses Magua and Uncas’s interracial aspirations, so different in tone and intent, to incorporate psychological depth to the or else simple antagonism that exists between Indian and white. Conclusion While Cooper sees the elements of civilization as important, he feels that there is a trace of savagery in all humanity. He therefore develops a hybrid genre, frontier romance, through linking war and sentimental (Cooper, 105).References Cooper, James F. The Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757. Lpzg, 1856. Print.

Corporate financial management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Corporate financial management - Essay Example n.d.). Lloyds has strengths as well as products, which are from both the companies that include Lloyds TSB’s approach towards risk and HBOS’s leading bancassurance businesses. The company’s multiple brands provide service to the customers regarding pricing as well as positioning in order to cover and attract more of the market. The two main brands of the company in England are Lloyds TSB as well as Halifax while in Scotland the company’s main brand is Bank of Scotland. The company tries to keep its cost down and improve its services to customers as the company can deliver effectiveness through shared services (Lloyds Banking Group, n.d.). Investigation on Rights Issue of Lloyds Banking Group There are several means of raising capital in an organisation. One such means applied by Lloyds Banking Group has been right issue. The company sold its new shares at discount. It was found that the existing shareholders of the company were offered new shares in ratio to their holdings. The left out shares that were not sold were bought by other investors as well as investment banks underwriting the process that has promised to swab up the unwanted shares in order to ensure that Lloyds gets its money. The reason behind Lloyds raising the fund has been that the bank wanted to evade from being involved in the Government’s toxic Assets Protection Scheme (APS). The bank had 43pc owned by their taxpayers. Originally, in order to insure ?260 billion in loans from the scheme, Lloyds Was expected to pay ?15.6 billion and thus increasing the taxpayer stake to 62pc. Royal Bank of Scotland that took part in the APS ended up being 84pc which were owned by the Government after putting its risky loans for insurance. However, Lloyds has to pay the Government a fee of ?2.5 billion in response for the protection that was by now offered by the taxpayers since the declaration of the scheme in 2009 (Telegraph, 2009) ‘The offer on the table for the share holders’ was that Lloyds, for every current share owned offered 1.34 new shares at a deep discount of around 37p each. The most important consideration has been the cost associated to the average shareholders. The typical investors who owned 740 shares were provided the opportunity to retain their stake in the company by buying around 991 new shares at a price of ?366.67 (Telegraph, 2009). It can be analysed that the fees that Lloyds had to pay was huge. The company planned to spend ?500m on all its cost out of the ?13.5billion raised by them (Daily Mail Reporter, 2009). It was further proposed that if the shareholders of Lloyds don’t do not take any measure at all then Lloyds is going to sell the shareholders allocation of shares on its behalf and send them the profit by cheque (MoneyHighStreet Staff, 2009). For the 2.8 million private shareholders the average holding was 740 shares, which denotes that if they assume their rights in full, they would have had to pay al most ?370. Small investors were involved in right issue of Lloyds. Some were the institutions such as pension funds and investment firms along with the taxpayers. However, for those investors who didn’t take up the offer had to receive a cheque from the bank for the sale of their nil-paid rights. Moreover, the underwriters had guaranteed to buy the shares that was not subscribed for by

Tin roof(bar)Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Tin roof(bar)Marketing - Essay Example Social media marketing does not face any hindrance concerning geographical setting hence customers from whatever geographical location can be reached. Social media builds brand, product awareness, a brand is a long-term picture of a given commodity, and it is that which makes a product be known for quite some time. The intensity of a brand has the implication of enabling individuals know a product more, it can be used to create new customers by letting them know about the business. Secondly, letting them be your friends, making of friends is something quite hard given its procedural; on the contrary, it is quite easier through the social media (Keillor pg. 13). This will enable them buy from Tin Roof (bar) as their brand of choice. Social media marketing is worth investing in because of several reasons, which include and is not restricted to the following. It is in social media where customers are easily found as everyone in the target market use social media in one way or another. F ace book, YouTube, Twitter, LinkedIn, Pinterest and  mobile apps and games  have all become favorite pastimes across the world (Schepp and Debra pg. 112). ... ts the products and brands on a platform as well as the product messages to be shared; this leads to awareness hence many individuals would know the product. Interest is also developed on a product hence creating customer loyalty, and sales improvement, which leads to increased revenue, and hence the profit and company image will as well increase. (Keillor pg. 45). The company should therefore use this method to widen the operation base of the company. In the world of competition, the use of social media has the impact of leveling the playing field, as Tin Roof (Bar) Company will be in the position of receiving enquiries from big and small prospective clients alike. The company will be in the position of achieving the set marketing objectives using similar tools like the others and applying the same rules. This means social media sites are both less costly and easy to access irrespective of whether the company is a big one or a small one. This is despite the fact that such companies would still own a bigger chunk of the platform depending on their resource base. Another reason that Tin Roof (Bar) will find social media helpful in marketing is that social media is searchable and it would aid consumers to look for its products and services through online searches. This is because, through social media the company’s organic Google search results will be affected and hence provide entry to the website of the company. This form of interlinking the platform used whether, face book, twitter, Skype or any other platform has the impact of creating value for the company’s products (Schepp and Debra pg. 72-5). Furthermore, social media content is sharable. One of the major purposes of a social media platform is to find contents and share them irrespective of where they find

The Prefabricated Houses Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

The Prefabricated Houses - Term Paper Example One of these types of buildings is known as "prefabricated house" that kind of housing can be finished in short period and manufactured off-site in advance. It consists of standard sections that can be easily shipped, assembled, and dis-assembled. Moreover, the cost of  prefabricated  unit  is equivalent to  30-40%  of the cost of typical unit. This paper explores prefabricated housing, benefits, types, installation procedure, misconceptions, and future prospects. Prefabricated Houses Defined Prefabrication is a process of assembling the components of a particular structure in a factory and transporting the finished assemblies or sub-assemblies to the construction site where the final product is to be installed. The process is an alternative to the traditional on-site construction practice where raw material is gathered and assembled on location of construction (Daab, 2008). The primary principle of prefabrication is grouping comparable construction tasks and applying assem bly line techniques on construction site where skilled labor is available. The process is also called off-site manufacture (OSM). The practice is more effective when modularization is also employed, that is, the process of repeating units of form throughout the structure, or when several replica of the same basic structure are to be built (West 1). According to Callcutt Review of House building Delivery (2007) prefabrication is time-saving, economical, and provide high quality end product. In addition, the process has a potential to offer faster construction, cleaner and safer working conditions, reduced housing faults, reduced construction waste, and more energy efficient homes. On the other hand, some of the challenges of prefabricated housing include: interface detailing, handling and supply chain logistics, transportation to location, investment ability, and social stigma (West 1).Schweitzer and Michael state: "The earliest known examples of successful prefabricated housing in A merica came soon after, however, the "great house" of Edward Winslow was sent from England to Cape Ann northeast of Boston in 1624 to provide for the fishing fleet already operating there. The building was reportedly moved several times subsequently and parts of its supposedly were built into a house in Salem, Massachusetts, still standing today, more than 300 years later."(57) Types of Prefabricated Housing According to BRE and UK Department for Communities and Local Government (Callcutt, 2007) there are three types of prefabricated systems used by housing market. It includes volumetric systems, partial modularization, and prefabrication of elements. Volumetric systems include completely assembled three-dimensional modular units manufactured in a factory and installed on location. Partial modularization includes standardized units or elements while prefabrication of elements refers to an assortment of individual systems including 'frames' and 'structural insulated panels (SIP)'.Eac h of these systems has its own pros and cons, however, all of these are important for prefabricated housing market because of their use in isolation or combination as hybrid techniques(Callcutts,2007). Three types of prefabricated housing market sections include modular, penalized, and precut. A modular home system consists of three-dimensional unit. It includes interior and exterior walls, plumbing, wiring, and other kinds of utility

Dcf Distributed Coordination Function Computer Science Essay

Dcf Distributed Coordination Function Computer Science Essay Fragmentation It is the process used in MAC IEEE 8021.11 to break ­ing apart a packet into smaller pieces. Fragmentation is process that dividing long frame to several shorter frame. Using this technology because the Wireless LANs have high bit error rates. The probability of losing frame is much higher for wireless links. The 802.11 uses fragmentation to reduce the frame error rate. The PCF is supporting sensitivity traffic and support some high priority application. Therefore the real time application data need to transmitted without any delay. The probability of lost frame is much higher for wireless links. Thats why fragmentation is used to Reduces amount of time medium is in use and Reduces probability of collisions. And there some pervious work has been done which related to our title, will be shown in next sections. Acknowledgment: Acknowledgments the patience and support of my family was the biggest help in the completion of this project. And would also like to acknowledge for my supervisor Mr.Manssor Ali and for module tutor Prof. Vallavarj, and module leader Mr. Vijay Krishna, for their guiding. Also, I would like to thank the project coordinator Ms. Pravenna , for encouraging me to complete this work and my study. Nomenclature MAC: Medium Access Control. DCF: Distributed Coordination Function. PCF: Point Coordination Function. AP: Access Point. BSS: Basic Service Set. IBSS: Independent Basic Service Set. ESS: Extend Service Set. RTS: Request To Send. CTS: Clear To Send. ACK: Acknowledgement. OSI: Open System Interconnection. LLC: Logical Link Control. HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol NAV: Network Allocation Vector. DSSS: Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum. Contents Page Contentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. Page No Abstractà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. i Acknowledgementà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ii Nomenclatureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..iii Contents pageà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..iv List of figuresà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦v Chapter 1: Introductionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦7 1.1) General Informationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..7 1.2) Aim Of the projectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦7 1.3) Project Objectiveà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..8 1.4) Honors challengesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.8 Chapter 2: literature Review..9 Backgroundà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..9 IEEE MAC 802.11physical layerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦10 what is Fragmentation.10 Why we are using this Technology.12 The advantages and disadvantages of fragmentation..12 Distributed Coordination function (DCF)13 Fragmentation Operation.14 Point Coordination function (PCF)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..15 Analysis The earliest work in data fragmentation IEEE802.1116 Chapter 3 Literature Review analysis..19 solutions for all above problems.19 Future Work..20 Chapter 4 Research Problem.21 Chapter 5 Design and Experiment Setupà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..22 Chapter 6 Conclusionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.23 Chapter 7 Referencesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.25 List of figures Figure name Page No. Figure (1) Independent Basic Service Set(IBSS)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 11 Figure (2) Infrastructure Basic Service Set à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 11 Figure (3) Fragmentation The RTS/CTS access methodà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. 13 Figure( 4) MSDU divided into several MPDUà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 14 Figure (5). Combination DCF PCF. 15 Figure (6) The effect of (polling overhead )on network throughput17 Figure (7),Effect of fragmentation. 18 Figure (8), WLAN Setup diagram in OPNETà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. 22 Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1) Aim: Study on the effect data fragmentation on the performance of IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN under PCF mode.fragmentation used to increase reliability transmit frame by divide 802.11 frames into smaller pieces (fragments) that are sent separately to the destination. 1.2) The objectives in this paper will be as follows: 1)The first objective in this paper will be understand the Theory and different standards of IEEE 802.11. 2)To understand the what are structure of the wireless network 3)To evaluate and analyse the effect data fragmentation on the performance of IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN under PCF mode. )Selection for suitable simulation tool4 5)To design suitable WALN with appropriate settings 6)Study the critical evaluation of the result. 1.3) Honours challenge: Critical analysis and evaluation of the results. Experimental Investigation of existing work. 1.4) General Information: The motivation i select this project title , is because in my organization they are looking for wireless network technology ,which can provide such applications like for delivering traffic for real-time applications such as Voice and data . Therefore IEEE 802.11 under point coordinate function PCF can satisfy the requirement, we will see that later. wireless local area network (WLAN), make people on the move to communicate with anyone and anywhere at anytime Caledonian college is one best example which is providing wireless service inside the college camps which allows the student to share data and web brows. The IEEE 802.11 WLAN has two different type of method channel accessing ,the distributed coordination function (DCF) and point coordination function (PCF). DCF is based on the carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) mechanism, while PCF is based on using the polling technique. The DCF mode of operation consists of two techniques for packet transmission. In the default its operate as a two-way handshaking technique where a positive acknowledgment is transmitted by the receiver station. (Stallings, 2007) . Fragmentation It is the process of break ­ing apart a packet into smaller pieces. A source (wireless Network Interface Card or access point) uses for fragmentation is to divide 802.11 frames into smaller pieces (fragments) that are sent separately to the destination. The fragments are all marked in a way that allows the destination device to put them back together again after it gets all the fragments. 1.5)The some of earliest work in data fragmentation IEEE802.11: Dynamic Fragmentation Scheme fro Rate -Adaptive WLAN.[7] Improving the Aggregate Throughput of Access Points in IEEE802.11Wireless LANs[26]. Performance Analysis of Packetized Voice Transmission with PCF in IEEE802.11Wirelessnetwork.[27] Delay Analysis of IEEE 802.11 PCF MAC based Wireless vetworks.[28] Performance Evaluation of the IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Standards [6]. Performance Enhancement of Wireless Local Networks. [20] Chapter 2 Literature Review Before we will go in depth of our title on data fragmentation under PCF mode , we must understand The basic building block of the WLAN network in IEEE 802.11., And our first objective will be covered in this section. 2.1) Background: In this section we will be discussing about wireless local area network (WLAN), which make people on the move to communicate with anyone and anywhere at anytime Caledonian college is one best example which is providing wireless service inside the college camps which allows the student to share data and web brows ,but increasing demand on portable computer for example Laptops and increasing communication equipment, its has responsibility of increasing in wireless network service. As we know this technology is working under protocols to control the service between users. Each type of wireless data network operates on a specific set of radio frequencies. For example, most Wi-Fi networks operate in a special band of radio frequencies around 2.4 GHz that have been reserved in most parts of the world for unlicensed point-to-point spread spectrum radio services. Other Wi-Fi systems use a different unlicensed band around 5 GHz. (Ross , 2008) ) IEEE MAC 802.11physical layer are defined in three type:2.2 Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS):its operating in the 2.4 GHz band at data rate of 1Mbps and 2Mbps, the number of channels available depend on the bandwidth. Frequency hopping spread spectrum(FHSS): operating in 2.4GHz at data rates of 1Mbps and 2Mbps, the available channel range is 23 in japan,70in USA. Infrared : data rate is 1Mbps and 2Mbps operating at a wavelength between 850and 950 nm. For IEEE 802.11 there are different standards as we can see ,but my study will be based on IEEE 802.11:[4] à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ IEEE 802.11: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Medium Access Control (MAC), and 1 and 2 Mbps for DSSS, FHSS in 2.4 GHz band, and Infrared, ratified in 1997. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ IEEE 802.11a: Works at 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48 and 54 Mbps in 5GHz band, ratified in 1999. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ IEEE 802.11b: Works at 5.5 and 11 Mbps in 2.4 GHz band, ratified in 1999. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢IEEE 802.11e: MAC enhancements for Quality of Service (QoS), work ongoing.( Stallings,2005) 2.3) There are four physical components standards for 802.11 network : Access point- Station- -Wireless Medium -Distribution System The basic structure block ,of the WLAN network is the 802.11 basic service set (BSS). A BSS defines a coverage area where all stations within the BSS connected. There are Two BSS network topologies: Independent BSS (IBSS) Networks Infrastructure BSS Networks The first one, In the independent BSS network stations, as it shown in figure(1) are communication directly with each other. Also its called the IBSS as ad-hoc network, used to communicate all station in infrastructure network together . An ad -hoc network operates from one station to another station immediately, without any help from other device, thats mean no need for permission to access. This operation is working by using the independent basic service set(IBSS) . Figure (1) :Independent Basic Service Set(IBSS) Second an Infrastructure Basic Service Set(BSS) as we can see in figure, (2) is a type of IEEE 802.11 network consists from stations and access point(AP), which are used to communicate all stations by (BSS).This will work when first station is sending the information to AP and than the AP forward this information to station which let the information pass to a wired node and the AP passes to fixed network. This available at (http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ff556962(VS.85).aspx) Figure (2):Infrastructure Basic Service Set (http://msdn.microsoft.com/en- us/library/ff556962(VS.85).aspx) 1] what is Fragmentation? and 2] Why we are using this Technology? 2.4) what is Fragmentation? In this section we understand the Fragmentation It is the process of break ­ing apart a packet into smaller pieces. Fragmentation is process that dividing large frame into several shorter frame. Each fragment consists of a MAC Layer header and frame check sequence (FCS), and a fragment number representing its ordered to position within the frame. Because the source station transmits each fragment independently, the receiving station reply with separate acknowledgement for each fragment (Yuguang and Kwon,2003 ) . All fragments are generate with equal size at same time, and all fragments will not change until they are transmitted in both PCF and DCF. 2.5) Why we are using this Technology? Using this technology because the Wireless LANs have high bit error rates. The probability of lasing frame is much higher for wireless links. 802.11 uses fragmentation to reduce the frame error rate. 2.6)The advantages and disadvantages of fragmentation: Advantages : To reliability of data exchange between the stations. The uses fragmentation to reduce the frame error rate and fragmentation for larger sized packets improves . Disadvantage: fragmentation will increase the overhead. (Tamer Khatteb,2009) 2.7) Distributed Coordination function (DCF) In 802.11, DCF also provides an optional way of transmitting data frames that involve transmission of special short RTS and CTS frames to the transmission of actual data frame. As shown in Fig(.3) an RTS frame is transmitted by a station, which needs to transmit a packet. When the destination receives the RTS frame, it will transmit a CTS frame after SIFS interval immediately following the reception of the RTS frame. Figure(3) Fragmentation The RTS/CTS access method (Anon.,2003) The source station is allowed to transmit its packet only if it receives the CTS correctly. Note that all the other stations are capable of updating the NAVs based on the RTS from the source station and the CTS from the destination station, which helps to combat the hidden terminal problems In fact, a station able to receive the CTS frames correctly, can avoid collisions even when it is unable to sense the data transmissions from the source station. If a collision occurs with two or more RTS frames, much less bandwidth is wasted when compared with the situations where larger data frames in collision.(Haitao ,et al.,2002) 2.8) The Fragmentation operation: A 802.11 data link layer is divided in two sub layers Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control(MAC). In 802.11, a MAC service data unit (MSDU) could be divided into a sequence of smaller MAC protocol data unit (MPDUs) as it (shown in figure 4). Fragmentation creates MPDUs smaller than the original MSDU length to increase the reliability, by increasing the probability of successful transmission of the MSDU in cases where channel characteristics limit reception reliability for longer frames. Fragmentation is able at each immediate transmitter. The process of combine MPDUs into a single MSDU is called as defragmentation . Defragmentation is adept at each immediate destination Only MPDUs with a unicast receiver address will be fragmented. Broadcast multicast frames shall not be fragmented even if their length exceeds a Fragmentation Threshold When a directed MSDU is received from the LLC with a length greater than a Fragmentation Threshold the MSDU shall be fragmented. The MSDU is divided into MPDUs. Each fragment is a frame no larger than a Fragmentation Threshold. (Yuguang and Kwon,2003 ). Figure( 4) MSDU divided into several MPDU. (Yuguang and Kwon,2003 ). ) Point Coordination function (PCF):2.9 PCF is working in combination with DCF as it shown in figure (5). PCF works suitable for high traffic load, In PCF, the AP acts in the role of the point coordinator, and it controls the medium access, If point coordinator hears there is no traffic after PIFS time gap, it sends out beacon frame Field to indicate length of time that PCF (polling) will be used instead of DCF (contention) during this time.(Stalling,2008) receiving stations must stop transmission for that amount of time The period during which PCF operates is called the contention-free period (CFP). Before the CFP begins, the AP operates under DCF, but it makes use of the priority inter-frame space (PIFS) to take hold the medium, and then sends out a beacon packet containing the duration of the CFP.(Stalling,2008) Figure (5). combination DCF PCF .(Stalling,2008) The fragmentation operation in PCF is same as DCF,but in PCF conation free period making different ,but because the DCF working with Contention period (CP) and PCF working with Contention free period(CFP) . (Yuguang Kwon,2003 ). There are some limitations on PCF which directly effetely the fragmentation, one of these limitation is the binary exponential back off , the frame need to wait even the medium is free ,because the binary exponential back off will double the random number from 15 to 1023 till the medium will be free, so this can effect the retransmit the frame in fragmentation . Other limitation in PCF has been designed to support time-limited for poor QoS performance. In particular the central pooling scheme is inefficient and complex which causes fall of the performance of PCF high-priority traffic under load, when a free station is allowed to send a frame of length between 0 and 2346 bytes, it introduce the difference of transmission time. (Dillip.2006). 2.1.0)Analysis The earliest work in data fragmentation IEEE802.11: In this section we will analysis ,In this paper(Abhishek,2003) we can analysis that polling in PCF causes overhead . In PCF, point coordinator (PC )is a central coordinator that schedules channel access for all other polling able stations in CFP. PC maintains list of poll able nodes in BSS. At beginning of CFP it polls all stations in Round Robin fashion. Nodes receiving poll respond back, either by transmitting data or there is no data frame. If station has no pending data, then it sends no frame. If station fails to do either then its result in polling time out at PC and PC resumes polling. When most stations have pending data, in order polling provide to ordered channel access and this can reduces collisions. But when few stations have pending data and rest are silent, this polling operation becomes major overhead, It adds unnecessary delay for stations with data, due to unsuccessful poll attempts for stations, with no pending data. For this reason resulting in throughput decreasi ng. Form the figure(6) we compares the overall throughput of network with 32 and 64 nodes having 16 nodes that have data to transmit. We can analysis that Effect of polling overhead is clearly visible(Abhishek,2003) Figure 6: the effect of (polling overhead )on network throughput From this paper, we can find the solution for pervious paper (Abhishek ,2003),by analysis that the overhead in PCF fragmentation is high ,so instead of allowing the transmission of multiple packets with a high data rate ,its possible to make MPDU large size to reduce the overheads caused by multiple packets transmission when channel condition is good. In Literature Review analysis we can describe it more clear(Yuguang and Kwon,2003 ). As we understand from this paper, that voice packets transmitted by use of PCF mode ,According to our analysis, PCF mode can well support packetized voice transmission using echo canceller fragmentation ,when the load are fragmented into small packets ,large fragment size such as 2000 or 2304 bits dose favour to voice traffic at the available bandwidth for data transmission.(Xiyan,al.,2003) In this paper ,we can analysis that, they propose a new rate adaptive MAC protocol with adynamic fragmentation. The major advance is the use of multiple fragmentation thresholds, for different rates to generate a new fragment from (remaining) MSDU only after the rate for next transmission is selected. With this scheme, the nodes with good channels can transmit more data than the ones with bad channel.( Byung,al.,2005) In this paper ,several methods been used to improve wireless network performance ,the result indicate as we can see in the figure (7),that the effect of fragmentation threshold can increase throughput and improve the wireless network performance, but how, the answer is when the bit error rate selected to be and the fragmentation threshold to be 256 bytes or 512 bytes, the result show that there is no any major effect on the network performance.(Walid Ajlouni,2006) figure (7),Effect of fragmentation, ( Walid Naim,2006) This paper ,proposes an adaptive control algorithm to tune the performance of IEEE802.11wireless LANs, so that traffic demands with different characteristics will be handled mostly by the MAC protocol that fits them. The algorithm aims is control the percentage of CFP duration within a super frame by measuring the throughput in PCF mode.(James,al.,2003) Chapter 3 Literature Review analysis T In this section we will be analysis ( 3.1 he out come from literature Review analysis: -Fragmentation It is the process of break ­ing apart a packet into smaller pieces. Fragmentation is process that dividing long frame to several shorter frame, Each fragment consists of a MAC Layer header, frame check sequence (FCS), and a fragment number indicating its ordered position within the frame. (Yuguang Kwon,2003 ). -The main reason we are using fragmentation is because the Wireless LANs have high bit error rates. -The period during which PCF operates is called the contention-free period (CFP). When most stations have pending data, in order polling provide ordered channel access and reduces collisions. But when few stations have pending data and rest are silent, this polling mechanism becomes major overhead, It adds unnecessary delay for stations . There are some limitations on PCF which directly effetely the fragmentation, one of these limitation is the binary exponential back off , the frame need to wait even the medium is free ,because the binary exponential back off will double the random number from 15 to 1023 till the medium will be free, so this can effect the retransmit the frame in fragmentation .(Class lecture ,Simulation Network Multimedia) 3.2 ) What will be solutions for Some Of above problems: 1) When there will be high overhead in PCF fragmentation is, so instead of allowing the transmission of multiple packets with a high data rate ,its possible to make MPDU large size to reduce the overheads caused by multiple packets transmission when channel condition is good. 2) when the bit error rate selected to be or the fragmentation threshold to be 16 bytes or 256 bytes, the result show that there is no any major effect on the network performance, so this maybe will be one of in our design and experiment we will select the above bit rat error than simulated it and observe the result.( Walid Naim,2006) 3) We go for IEEE 802.11e which introduces new coordination function called as a Hybrid Coordination Function (HCF) that is only useful for QoS network. The HCF supports channel access mechanisms, Enhanced Distributed Channel two additional Access (EDCA) for contention-based and HCF Coordination Channel Access (HCCA) for contention-free. And this stander will solve all problem with Polling and CW, which effect on fragmentation in PCF. ) Future Work:3.3 During my research i found that there is new standard been developed in 2007 , it know as IEEE 802.11e. To the best of our knowledge, there is very little literature , that deals with polling overhead in PCF .Other People have mentioned the problem earlier and there also come with some proposed solution to deal with it. also that people have mention the importance of polling for providing QoS service in IEEE 802.11 WLAN. New upcoming standard for QoS, IEEE 802.11e its called HCF (Byung,al.,2005) Chapter 4 Research Problem As i mention earliest the reason of selecting the study of data fragmentation effect in IEEE 802.11 under PCF mode is , is because in my organization they are looking for wireless network technology ,which can provide such applications like for delivering traffic for real-time applications such as Voice and data. There are some limitations on PCF which directly effetely the fragmentation, one of these limitation is the binary exponential back off , the frame need to wait even the medium is free ,because the binary exponential back off will double the random number from 15 to 1023 till the medium will be free, so this can effect the retransmit the frame in fragmentation . There for i found that IEEE 802.11 under PCF mode ,will not satisfy my Chapter 5 Design and Experiment Setup In This section i will be doing simulation , by using OPNET software as we can see in figure (8) to design and evaluate the performance of the IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol for wireless LANs. The aim of the project is to study the effect of data fragmentation in IEEE802.11under PCF mode. The main objectives of this experiment is to Study the effect of data fragmentation in PCF by choosing different bit rate error and observe the major effect on the network, as we analysis that using low bit error rate ,and give fragmentation value 256 bytes or 512bytes ,the result must show that there will be will no effect on the data transmission or on network performance. We can also do measuring response time (seconds) for PCF with 256 fragmentation and fixed data rate 5.5Mbps, and for page response time (seconds) for PCF with 256 fragmentations with fixed data rate 11Mbps.Finaly Compare the result obtain. Figure 8: WLAN Setup diagram in OPNET Chapter 6 Conclusion During my working in this project I have identify the effect of data fragmentation in IEEE802.11 under PCF in wireless network. I come out that this standard will help me in my organization to be used in library office only. The probability of lost frame is much higher for wireless links. Thats why fragmentation is used to Reduces amount of time medium is in use and Reduces probability of collisions .The IEEE 802.11 WLAN has two different channel accessing mechanisms, namely, the distributed coordination function (DCF) and point coordination function (PCF). We understand that When most stations have pending data, sequential polling provide ordered channel access and reduces collisions. But when few stations have pending data and rest are silent, this polling mechanism becomes major overhead, It adds unnecessary delay for stations with data. Also we understand that when there will be high overhead in PCF fragmentation is, so instead of allowing the transmission of multiple packets with a high data rate ,its possible to make MPDU large size to reduce the overheads caused by multiple packets transmission when channel condition is good. Anew standard has been developed in 2007 , it know as IEEE 802.11e. which support QoS. and can solve polling overhead in PCF. The References Books : Stalling,W.William.,2008.Data and computer communications 8 ed published by Dorling Kindersly(India) Pvt,LTD 482, F.I.E Delhi, India. Stalling, W,Willim., 2008, Wirless communications Network second ed published by Asoke K. Ghosh (India) Delhi, India. E-Books: Ross, John.,2008. Book of Wireless : A Painless Guide to Wi-Fi and Broadband Wireless (2nd Edition). San Francisco, CA, USA: No Starch Press, Incorporated, p 15. Available at: http://site.ebrary.com/lib/caledonian/docDetail.action?docID=10218384p00 =a%20painless%20guide%20wi-fi%20broadband%20wireless%20(2nd%20edition). Journal Papers: Tamer, M Samir ,K .,2009.Performance Analysis of Wireless Local Area Networks ,WLANs A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Engineering at Cairo University in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree ofMASTER OF SCIENCE. Yoon Hougwon Kim Jeonge. ,2003. Data fragmentation scheme in IEEE 802.15.4 wilerlss sensor network, Department of computer Scinse and Engieenring , Korea Unifersity Dillip, K., 2006.Quality of Service Provisioning with modified IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol, Department of Computer Science and Engineering National Institute of Technology Rourkela Rourkela-769 008, Orissa, India Byung,S, Younggoo, K. ,2003.Throughput Enhancement Through Dynamic Fragmentation in Wireless LANs ,Student Member, IEEE, Yuguang Fang, Senior Member, IEEE, Tan F. Wong, Senior Member, IEEE. Abhishek ,G. , 2003.Dynamic Adaption of DCF and PCF mode of IEEE 802.11 WLAN, School of Information Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay . Xiyan, M ,Tamio, S.,2003.,Performance Analysis of Packetized Voice Transmission with PCF in IEEE802.11Wirelessnetwork, Dept. of electronic Engineering .Tsinghu University ,Beijing ,China.2003. Shakil ,A.,2007. Effect of Fragmentation in WLAN Systems with Interference Problems. College of Information Technology University. [emailprotected] .UAE James X.Dong,S.,2004 Mustafa Ergen Improving the Aggregate Throughput of Access Points in IEEE 802.11 Wireless LANs, and Anuj Puri Department of Electrical Engineering Computer Science University of California at Berkeley. Ziouva E. and Antonakopoulos T.2003., Efficient Voice Communications over IEEE802.11 WLANs Using Improved PCF Procedures. Walid ,HNaim ,A.,2006 Performance Enhancement of Wireless Local Area Networks,Dept. of Computer Science,Amman Arab University for Graduate Studies,P 0 Box 2925, Amman 11821, Jordan. Web Page:URL http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ff556962(VS.85).aspx

What Is The Expression Theory Of Art Essay -- essays research papers

Art has evolved and regenerated itself many times during our human existence. These differences are defined through changes in styles under various theories. During the nineteenth and early twentieth century, a style known as Expressionism became popular. During this movement the artists were trying to use their artwork as a tool of expression toward life. It was mainly dominant in the nonrepresentational arts, such as abstract visual arts and music. It also was probably one of the most difficult movements to understand because the whole point of the piece lay within the artist. Not only was it a movement, it defined the act of art as a whole. From the beginning of time, each work of art, excluding replicas, show a way of expressing one's self. Every artist puts a piece of his or herself into their artwork. Who really is to determine what that work of art was meant to express? One might ask, "Since most artwork is used as a way for an artist to express him or herself, what makes this expression period anything special?" On the general level "Expressionistic art, whether literature, painting, music, or cinema, often involves intense psychic disturbance and distortion in the perspective adopted by the artwork." "It is remote from the objective or realistic portrayals of the world, as well as from the happier emotions." To bring a more defined meaning to the overall theory of expressionism, two philosophers play a large role. The first notarized expressionistic philosopher was the Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy who was followed by his counterpart R.G. Collingwood: a twentieth-century English philosopher. Together they hold the two best known expositions of the expression theory. What make these two analyzers important is not what they agreed on, but rather on how they contrasted. They both conclude that during the expression theory, the main concern was to express emotion. The one question that draws the two apart is "What does it mean to express an emotion?" They attempt to conclude this question, by providing the answers to a few others. What the nature of art is? Why we make and appreciate art? Why the arts are so valuable? The best way to go about describing their thoughts is to state one of the thinkers discoveries followed by a thorough investigation of the second's, beginning with Leo Tolstoy. He begins his arg... ...correspondent real life events. "If the music does not evoke a real emotional response in a listener, according to this school of thought, this response should be considered inappropriate." No matter whose view you take they all have their faults. Making a theory on art is not the same as making a theory in science. With science you have guidelines that can be proven. There are very few guidelines in art that can be backed up by fact. The ideal of defining a theory in art is based on emotions as well. Both Tolstoy and Collingwood are using their emotions in order to judge other emotions. If I were forced to pick a philosopher to side with, I would probably lean toward Collingwood, since he leaves more area for variety. He places more of the wealth of the emotional art within the artist themselves rather than a third party. If it were totally up to me I would leave the decision on whether a work is good or not between the artist and whomever was viewing it at that time. What I might think as a good piece of work and what might evoke emotions in me might not do the same for another who might consider themselves experts, but does that really make my opinion less valuable?

Mkt100 Textbook – Chapter 1

SECTION ONE Assessing the Marketplace CHAPTER 1 Overview of Marketing CHAPTER 2 Developing a Marketing Plan and Marketing Strategies APPENDIX 2A Writing a Marketing Plan CHAPTER 3 Analyzing the Marketing Environment CHAPTER 1 Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to 1. LO1 Define marketing and explain its core concepts 2. LO2 Illustrate how marketers create value for a product or service 3. LO3 Summarize the four orientations of marketing 4. LO4 Identify the role of customer relationship management in creating value 5.LO5 Explain the importance of marketing both within and outside the firm M arketing is essentially about creating value for consumers and the company's shareholders. As you will learn throughout this book, creating value for consumers and the firm requires that marketers develop and nurture long-term, profitable relationships with consumers. This means that marketers must understand consumers' needs and wants and try to satisfy them through the goods and services they offer, the prices they charge, and the way they promote and deliver the goods and services.Let's take a look at how one of Canada's most successful and profitable high-tech companies, Research In Motion (RIM), is creating and delivering value to its consumers and shareholders with its BlackBerry. 1 The BlackBerry is one of Canada's most successful and innovative products. It changed not only the way business executives and professionals communicate, but also the speed and timeliness with which decisions are made. Users around the world attest that the BlackBerry enhances their ability to access key corporate information and connect with co-workers anywhere, anytime.The resulting efficiency means that business deals are made more quickly and key decisions are communicated to stakeholders even when they are on the golf course. The BlackBerry smartphone has become the one device that many business people can't live without. The BlackBerry was designed for w ireless email use. Within a few years of its release, it became the dominant device in the market. Not surprisingly, BlackBerry's market position is consistently challenged by new rivals, such as Apple's iPhone, HTC's Droid Incredible, and Palm's Pre.The iPhone, launched in 2007, created huge buzz and took the smartphone market by storm, gaining more than 25 percent market share in less than three years and becoming the second most popular smartphone. Google's Android, a recently launched operating system (OS) for smartphones, has more than doubled its market share in 2 less than a year. Page 4 To consolidate and grow its market position, RIM successfully entered into the consumer market segment 3 with two hugely popular smartphones, the BlackBerry Curve and the BlackBerry Torch.Consumers quickly adopted both of these smartphones, challenging the market segment where the iPhone is the current favourite. In response, Apple is now trying to gain a foothold in RIM's lucrative business market. The battle between the BlackBerry and the iPhone has many industry analysts pointing to the BlackBerry's weaknesses, such as a lack of applications and a challenging user interface. To silence its critics, RIM released the BlackBerry 6, with a new OS, user interface, and WebKit browser, while also 4 revamping its BlackBerry App World.Although apps and web browsing are all the rage, email access is what drives many voice-only customers to upgrade their plans to include data services, and this area has been the BlackBerry's strength. The BlackBerry also uses wireless networks more efficiently than competing devices, which means that carriers such as Rogers and Bell can offer data services to BlackBerry customers for less money than customers pay to use competing products. In fact, telecom carriers are feeling the squeeze from data 5 hungry smartphones and have responded by introducing usage-based billing for data services.This change could affect consumers' monthly bills, whic h could, in turn, influence their buying decision. RIM co-CEO Jim Balsillie has said that carriers are well aware of how profitable the BlackBerry is for their business and how strategically RIM is aligned with them. Clearly, the BlackBerry has some unique advantages over its competitors. Despite fierce competition, RIM's sales grew from US$85 million in 2000 to US$19. 9 billion in 2011. W ithin this same period, the company increased its workforce from about 1000 employees to more than 17 500 employees, of which 3200 are in sales, marketing, and customer support.RIM spent US$1. 9 billion on sales and marketing in fiscal year 2010. Currently, RIM has more than 41 million subscribers globally. In addition to meeting its customer needs with an impressive portfolio of innovati ve products, RIM has made excellent customer service a top priority. It has increased the number of employees providing customer care, improved the number of service contracts to users, and developed training pro grams for corporate customers. This customer focus helps RIM ensure that BlackBerry is â€Å"Always On, Always Connected,† satisfying users who demand information in real time. Page 5What Is Marketing? Unlike other subjects you may have studied, marketing is already very familiar to you. You start your day by agreeing to do the dishes in exchange for a freshly made cup of coffee. Then you fill up your car with gas. You attend a class that you have chosen and paid for. After class, you pick up lunch at the cafeteria, have your hair cut, download a few songs from iTunes, an online music store, and watch a movie. In each case, you have acted as the buyer and made a decision about whether you should part with your time and/or money to receive a particular service or type of merchandise.If , after you return home from the movie, you decide to auction a collectible item on eBay, you have become a seller. In each of these transactions, you were engaged in marketing because you were exchanging something of value that satisfies a need. This chapter will look at the definition of marketing and at how marketing is used to create value in products or in services. We will see how the interrelated marketing mix—or four Ps—create, transact, communicate, and deliver value. As well, we will look at where marketing happens and how it has evolved over the years into today's concept of value-based marketing.Lastly, we will discuss why m arketing is an important function for any successful firm. Refer to the chapter roadmap to guide you through the chapter contents. The Canadian Marketing Association states that â€Å" Marketing is a set of business practices designed to plan for and present an organization's products or services in ways that build effective customer 6 relationships. † What does this definition really mean? Good marketing is not a random activity; it requires thoughtful planning with an emphasis on the ethical implications of any of tho se decisions on consumers and society in general.Firms develop a marketing plan that specifies the marketing activities for a specific period of time. The marketing plan is broken down into various components —how the product or service will be conceived or designed, how much it should cost, where and how it will be promoted, and how it will get to the consumer. In any exchange, the buyer and the seller should be satisfied with the value they obtained from a transaction. In our earlier example, you sh ould be satisfied or even delighted with the song you downloaded, and Apple should be satisfied with the amount of money it received from you.The core aspects of marketing are shown in Exhibit 1. 1. Let's see how they look in practice. CHAPTER ROADMAP EXHIBIT 1. 1 Core Aspects of Marketing Page 6 1. LO1 Marketing Is About Satisfying Customer Needs and Wants Understanding and satisfying consumer needs and wants is fundamental to marketing success. A need is when a person feels de prived of the basic necessities of life, such as food, clothing, shelter, or safety. A want is the particular way in which the person chooses to fulfill his or her need, which is shaped by a person's knowledge, culture, and personality.For example, when we are hungry, we need something to eat. Some people want a submarine sandwich to satisfy that hunger, whereas others want a s alad and some soup instead. The topic of understanding customer needs is described in detail in Chapter 5, whichdeals with consumer behaviour. To understand customer needs and wants, the company must first identify the customers or market for its product or service. Generally, the market for a firm's offerings consists of all consumers who need or want a company's products or services and have the ability and willingness to buy them.Although marketers would prefer to sell their products and services to everyone, it is not practical to do so. Thus, marketers divide the market into subgroups or segments of peop le to whom they are interes ted in marketing their products, services, or ideas. For example, even though the marketplace for toothpaste users may include most of the people in the world, the makers of Crest could divide the market into adolescent, adult, and senior users, or perhaps into wine and coffee drinkers, people with sensitive gums, and denture users.If you manufacture toothpaste that bleaches and removes stains, you want to know for which market segments your product is most relevant and then make sure that you build a mark eting strategy that meets the needs and wants of the target groups or target market. The process of how companies segment the market for their products and services and then choose which segment to target and how best to reach that segment is described in Chapter 7. The process of identifying customer segments the company wants to target with its products and services requires market research.The types of market research that help marketers make good de cisions about various aspects of the marketing mix ar e discussed in Chapter 4. Page 7 Marketing Entails Value Exchange Video: The Bottled Water Industry Marketing is about an exchange—the trade of things of value between the buyer and the seller so that each is better off as a result. As depicted in Exhibit 1. 2, sellers provide goods or services, then communicate and facilitate the delivery of their offering to consumers.Buyers complete the exchange by giving money and information to the seller. Suppose you learn about a new Justin Bieber album when watching MTV, which gave a review of the album and mentioned that it was available online at iTunes. You go online and purchase the album. Along with gathering your necessary billing and shipping information, iTunes creates a record of your purchase: information that may be used in the coming months to inform you of the release of Bieber's next album or of his next concert in your area. Thus, in ddition to making money on this p articular transaction, iTunes can use the information you provided t o facilitate a future exchange and solidify a relationship with you —additional value for both you and iTunes. When you purchase a new Justin Bieber album, you are engaging in a marketing exchange. You get the songs, and the exchange partners get money and information about you. EXHIBIT 1. 2 Exchange: The Underpinning of Seller–Buyer Relationships Page 8 1. LO2 Marketing Requires Product, Price, Place, and Promotion Decisions Marketing traditionally has been divided into a set of four interrelated decisions known as the marketing 7 ix, or four Ps: product, price, place, and promotion, as shown in Exhibit 1. 3. Together, the four Ps comprise the marketing mix, which is the controllable set of activities that the firm uses to respond to the wants of its target markets. But what does each of them mean and how do they work together to create value for consumers? EXHIBIT 1. 3 Marketing Mix Decisions Active Exhibit: Exhibit 1. 3 – Marketing Mix Decisions Product: Creating Value One main purpose of marketing is to create value by developing a variety of offerings, including goods, services, and ideas, to satisfy customer needs.Take, for example, water. Not too long ago, consumers perceived this basic commodity as simply water. It came out of a faucet and was consumed for drinking and washing. But taking a cue from European firms such as Perrier (France) and San Pellegrino (Italy), several Canadian-based firms, such as Clearly Canadian, Canadian Springs, and Montclair, have created a product with benefits that cons umers find valuable. In addition to easy access to water, an essential part of this created value is the product's brand image, which lets users say 8 to the world, â€Å"I'm healthy,† â€Å"I'm smart,† and â€Å"I'm chic. Recently, however, there is growing opposition t o bottled water, which not only makes it seem socially unacceptable, but also has se en some organizations banning the sale of bottled water on their premises. For example, the University of Ottawa has banned the sale of bottled water on campus, declaring itself a bottled water–free zone; it has set aside $75,000 to 9 install new water fountains across the campus. Clearly Canadian has created a product with benefits that consumers find valuable. Many offerings are a combination of goods and services.At a Taylor Swift concert, you can enjoy the concert (a service) and buy her CD (a good). Page 9 Goods are items that you can physically touch. Roots clothing, Molson Canadian beer, Kraft Dinner, and countless other products are examples of goods. Carmen Creek Gourmet Meats, a small Calgary-based company specializing in the marketing and distribution of grade A Canadian bison, demonstrates how a company offers value to customers. It provides exquisite gourmet bison meat that is raised, processed, and delivered using appropriate animal health practices. (SeeEntrepr eneurial Marketing 1. later in this chapter. ) Unlike goods, services are intangible customer benefits that are produced by people or machines and cannot be separated from the producer. Air travel, banking, insurance, beauty treatments, and entertainment all are services. If you attend a hockey or football game, you are consuming a service. Getting money from your bank by using an ATM or teller is another example of using a service. In th is case, cash machines usually add value to your banking experience by being conveniently located, fast, and easy to use. Many offerings represent a combination of goods and services.When you go to Hakim Optical, for example, you can have your eyes examined (service) and purchase new contact lenses (good). If you enjoy Taylor Swift's music, you can attend one of her concerts, which can be provided only at a particular time and place. At the concert, you can purchase one of her CDs —a tangible good that provides you with a combination of a go od and a service. Ideas include thoughts, opinions, philosophies, and intellectual concepts that also can be marketed. Groups promoting bicycle safety go to schools, give talks, and sponsor bike helmet poster contests fo r the members of their primary target market: children.Then their secondary target market segment, parents and siblings, gets involved through their interactions with the young contest participants. The exchange of value occurs when the children listen to the sponsor's presentation and wear their helmets while bicycling, which means they have adopted, or become â€Å"purchasers,† of the safety idea that the group marketed. In Chapters 8,9, and 10 of this book, you will learn much more about the decisions, theories, applications, and strategies of product and services marketing. Price: Transacting Value Everything has a price, though it doesn't always have to be monetary.Price, therefore, is everything the buyer gives up—money, time, energy—in ex change for the product. Marketers must determine the price of a product carefully on the basis of the potential buyer's belief about its value. For example, Air Canada can take you from Toronto to Vancouver or New York. The price you pay depends on how far in advance you book the ticket, the time of year, whether you want to fly economy or business class, and more recently whether or not you have luggage to check in. Passengers are charged a fee if they have more than one piece of check -in luggage.If you value the convenience of buying your ticket at the last minute for a ski trip between Christmas and New Year's Day and you want to fly business class, you can expect to pay four or five times as much as you would for the cheapest available ticket. That is, you have traded off a lower price for convenience. For marketers, the key to determining prices is figuring out how much customers are willing to pay so that they are satisfied with the purchase and the seller achieves a reasonab le profit. In Chapter 11, you will learn much more about pricing concepts, decisions, and strategies.The Country Grocer was Canada's first independently owned grocery store to sell groceries online. Place: Delivering Value The third P, place, describes all the activities necessary to get the product from the manufacturer or producer to the right customer when that customer wants it. Place decisions are concerned with developing an efficient system for merchandise to be distributed in the right quantities, to the right locations, and at the right time in the most efficient way in order to minimize systemwide costs 10 while satisfying the service levels required by their customers.Many marketing students initially overlook the importance of distribution management because a lot of distributio n activities occur behind the scenes. But without a strong and efficient distribution system, merchandise isn't available when or where customers want it. They are disappointed, and sales and pro fits suffer. Place or distribution activities and decisions are discussed in detail in Chapter 12. To illustrate how distribution delivers value, consider the experience of The Country Grocer, a small Ottawa-based independent grocery store.The Country Grocer was the first independently owned grocery store in Canada to offer online groceries. You might think that because the store is independent, customers would live within a couple of kilometres of it. On the contrary, The Country Grocer (www. thecountrygrocer. com) gets more than 30 percent of its online sales from the eastern Arctic (Iqaluit) and about 5 percent of its business from customers in the United States. Customers place their orders 11 through the website, and The Country Grocer ensures that their purc hases are delivered on time.Promotion: Communicating Value Even the best products and services will go unsold if marketers cannot communicate their value to customers. Countless Internet companies failed in the late 1990s, at least partly because they did not communicate successfully with their customers. Some such firms had great products at very fair prices, but when customers could not find them on the Internet, the companies failed. Promotion is communication by a marketer that informs, persuades, and reminds potential buyers about a product or service to influence their opinions or elicit a response.Promotion generally can enhance a product or service's value, as happened for Parasuco jeans. The company's provocative advertising has helped create an image that says more than â€Å"Use this product and you will look good. † Rather, the promotion sells youth, style, and sex appeal. The four Ps work together. Although marketers deliver value through each of the four Ps individually, they can deliver greater value to consumers by configuring the four Ps as a whole rather than by treating them as separate components.That is, the product or service offered must satisfy the target customers' spe cific needs and wants, be priced appropriately, be available at loc ations where customers want it, and be promoted in a manner and through media that are consistent with the target consumers. For instance, luxury or high-fashion items from retailers such as Coach, Louis Vuitton, and Swarovski are well -made, priced at a premium, available at exclusive locations, and promoted only in certain media where the advertisements emphasize style, fashion, sex appeal, and so on.Parasuco is known for its provocative advertising, which appears on billboards and uses celebrities to market its denim lines. Page 11 Marketing Is Shaped by Forces and Players Within the Firm A company's marketing activities are shaped by factors that are both internal to the firm and external to the firm, as shown in Exhibit 1. 4. The consumer is the centre of all marketing activities, and offering the best value possible will attract customers to products and keep them loyal.For marketers to deliver the best value to their customers, they must leverage the full potential of their internal capabilities; w ork effectively with their partners (i. e. , suppliers, distributors, and other intermediaries, such as financial institutions, advertising agencies, and research firms); and constantly evaluate and respond to the competitive environment. EXHIBIT 1. 4 Understanding the Marketing Environment Page 12 As described in the chapter vignette, RIM's success rests in the unique email capability of the BlackBerry, coupled with excellent customer service.RIM harnesses its internal capabilities by creating a custome rdriven organization, where all internal departments and functions share information and work collaboratively toward a common goal, balance costs with benefits, and build strong relationships with customers. In addition, RIM relies on corporate partners, such as Rogers, TELUS, and Bell, to sell its BlackBerry devices, so it is hardly surprising to hear RIM co-CEO Jim Balsillie making the poin t that carriers are aware of how profitable the BlackBerry is for their businesses.RIM's competitors have improved the value they offer to customers; thus, it is imperative for RIM to enhance its value to customers, or else it could be overtaken by the competition. Suppliers or even natural disasters can exert substantial influence on a company's marketing activities, sometimes with devastating consequences. In March 2011, a tsunami and earthquake in Japan destroyed several nuclear reactors, disrupting power and industrial production in Japan. This natural disaster also affected North American companies that relied on Japanese suppliers or inputs.For example, both Honda and Toyota severely cut back on the production of their 2011-model vehicles because of a shortage of electronic components and other parts that were usually imported from Japan. This reduction created a huge shortage of vehicles among Japanese dealerships in Canada and the United States during the spring season, one of the best 12 seasons for new-car sales. Marketing Is Shaped by Forces and Players External to the Firm External forces such as cultural, dem ographic, social, technological, economic, and political and legal changes shape a company's marketing activities, as shown in Exhibit 1. . For instance, two current social trends that are reshaping the marketing activities of most firms are concerns about the environment and obesity. In response to these concerns, marketers are beginning to use more environmentally friendly packaging for their products; some companies are even using alternative materials in the products themselves. In response to the obesity trend, marketers try to distinguish their products by using labels such as non-fat, low-fat, fat-free, sugar-free, and cholesterol-free. Similarly, food retailers are responding to demographic changes in Canada's population composition.Because the prop ortion of Chinese and South Asian people in Canada is on the rise and is forecasted to increase in the next decade, many food retailers have developed products and services that cater specifically to the needs of these groups. Sobeys's FreshCo store format demonstrates a prime example of a retailer trying to reach out and serve these Canadians. The store's layout, merchandise, level of service, and prices cater specifically to the needs of this segment of the Canadian demographic. The influence of all of these forces is discussed in greater detail inChapter 3. Sustainable Marketing 1. shows how marketers are trying to become more socially responsible in their business practices. Marketing Can Be Performed by Both Individuals and Organizations Imagine how complicated the world would be if you had to buy everything you consumed directly from producers or manufacturers. You would have to go from farm to farm buying your food and then from manufacturer to manufacturer to purchase the table, plates, and utensils you need to eat that food. Fortunately, marketing intermedia ries, such as retailers, accumulate merchandise from producers in large amounts and then sell it to you in smaller amounts.The process in which businesses sell to consumers is known as B2C (business-to-consumer) marketing, whereas the process of selling merchandise or services from one business to another is called B2B (business-to-business) marketing. Some companies, such as GE (General Electric), are engaged in both B2B and B2C marke ting at the same time. However, with the advent of various auction sites, such as eBay and Kijiji, and payment sites, such as PayPal, consumers have started marketing their products and services to other consumers, which requires a third category in which consumers sell to other consumers, or C2C (consumer-to-consumer)marketing.These marketing transactions are illustrated in Exhibit 1. 5. Individuals can also undertake activities to market themselves. When you apply for a job, for instance, the research you do about the firm, the resume and cover lett er you submit with your application, and the way you dress for an interview and conduct yourself during it are all forms of marketing activities. Accountants, lawyers, financial planners, physicians, and other professional service providers also market their services. EXHIBIT 1. 5 Marketing Can Be Performed byBoth Individuals and Organizations Page 13 Sustainable Marketing 1. 1 Green Your Marketing Practices The idea of sustainable development, or sustainability, is popular these days among groups representing various segments of society such as the media, environmentalists, nonprofit organizations, politicians, business executives, and even consumers. But what exactly does sustainability mean, how widespread is the adoption of sustainable development practices and policies among businesses, and what are the benefits of sustainability?You might be surprised to learn that sustainability seems to mean different things to different people. Fo r instance, a recent global survey of 1749 business executives by McKinsey & Company reported that 55 percent say that sustainability is about managing environmental issues such as greenhouse gas emissions, energy efficiency, waste management, green-product development, and water conservation. Further, 48 percent say it is about governance issues such as complying with regulations, maintaining ethical practices, and meeting accepted industry standards, and 41 percent say it includes the 13 anagement of social issues such as working conditions and labour standards. In a nutshell, it seems that organizations that practise sustainability must strive to conduct their business in such a way as to minimize harm to the environment, follow good governance practices, and comply with social standards. Indeed, a truly comprehensive and proactive approach to sustainability requires that businesses develop practices and policies around all three perspectives: environmental, governance, and social.This means that sustainability practices and policies must be embedded in all facets of the organization, from human resource management to manufacturing, marketing, production, planning, investments, and corporate strategy. Also, sustainability must involve all employees, from t he CEO to the employee on the shop floor. Implementing a comprehensive sustainability program is quite expensive and so many businesses tend to do the bare minimum or implement low-cost programs.In fact, according to the McKinsey Global Survey, 36 percent of executives believe that the main benefit of sustainability is that it improves corporate and brand reputation, while less than 20 percent believe that it improves operational efficiency, lowers costs, presents growth opportunities (new markets and products), or strengthens competitive position. Clearly, we are in the early stages in the adoption of sustainability policies and practices, and it is not unusual for there to be experimentation and feelings of euphoria, uncertainty, and confusion.O rganizations and executives tend to get better as their learning improves over time. We expect to see a greater number of organizations being more proactive in implementing sustainability policies and practices. Throughout this book, we will present various examples of sustainable marketing efforts undertaken by Canadian companies. Page 14 Social Media Marketing 1. 1 What Is Social Media? W hen you hear the term social media, chances are you immediately think of Facebook, YouTube, MySpace, Twitter. Initially, many of these sites were viewed as places where people connected just for fun.Things have changed dramatically over the last couple of years. Today, marketers are euphoric about the marketing potential of these sites. Not surprisingly, a major preocc upation of marketers these days concerns developing an integrated social media marketing strategy. So, what exactly is social media? It's not an understatement to say that there are as many definitions of social media as there are flavours at a Baskin-Robbins ice cream store. In fact, a quick Google search revealed more than 25 definitions, an indication of the diversity of these media.Considering the various definitions of and the use of social media leads us to the following simple definition: Social media is the use of Internet tools and software by individuals to easily and quickly create and share content, such as information, knowledge, and insights, with people who have similar interests to foster dialogue, social relationships, and personal identities. Participants act as both publishers and consumers by creating, sharing, or re-mixing content, such as videos, images, and texts.Social media conversations and relationships may move freely between the online and physical context. That is, they may originate online and continue offline, or vice versa. Openness, authenticity, and transparency are key 14 elements of effective social media. Social media is important to marketers for several reasons. First, more than 90 percent of Canadian Internet users are actively engaged with social media, with each visitor interacting with it for an average of 15 6. 5 hours per month and downloading an average of 120 videos per month.Social media is an excellent way to reach these consumers. Second, consumers are already carrying on conversations about companies, their brands and services; therefore, to be part of the conversation or to initiate conversations, companies must participate in social media. Third, social media enables marketers to accomplish many marketing goals, such as promoting corporate social responsibility, building customer relationships, enhancing customer service, building or defending their brands, engaging customers in research and new product development, and recruiting talent.Although social media is currently very popular among retail businesses and the consumer packaged goods industry, interest from firms of all sizes, all industries, and all types (B2B, B2C, and C2C) a re increasing daily. To illustrate how marketers are embracing this ever -changing world of social media, we have developed Social Media Marketing boxes for each chapter of this book. For a visual look at the impact of social media on the world around us, you may want to view a video called Social Media Revolution, which is available on YouTube. Sources: â€Å"What is Social Media? A not so critical review of concepts and definitions,†http://blog. etaroll. com/2008/11/14/what-is-social-media-a-not-so-critical-review-of-concepts-anddefinitions/(accessed December 2, 2009); Joseph Thornley, â€Å"Social networking isn't just about Facebook,†http://www. itworldcanada. com/blogs/ahead/2009/04/08/social -networking-isnt-just-aboutfacebook/48460/(accessed December 2, 2009); Joseph Thornley, â€Å"What is ‘social media’? † http://propr. ca/2008/what-issocial-media/ (accessed December 2, 2009); ComScore, www. comscore. com, 2009. Regardless of whether organi zations or individuals are engaged in B2B, B2C, or C2C marketing, one thing seems to be clear: social media is quickly ecoming an integral part of their marketing and communications strategies. Social media was widely used in the 2011 federal election in Canada, as politicians tried to win the hearts and minds of Canadians. Even more dramatically, social media played a major role in the crises observed in several Mideast countries. Social media was used to organize protesters and to report news of events in these countries to the res t of the world as they unfolded in real time. Social Media Marketing 1. 1 shows how marketers are using social media to reach out to their customers. Marketing Occurs in Many SettingsMost people think of marketing as a way for firms to make profits, but ma rketing works equally well in the nonprofit sector. Think about what influenced your selection of your college or university, other than family, friends, and convenience. It's likely that your college has a sophisticated marketing program to attract and retain students. Hospitals, theatres, charities, museums, religious institutions, politicians, and even governments rely on marketing to communicate their message to their constituents. A Piece of Africa buys art from African artists and, through its website (www. izinsa. com/apieceofafrica), makes that art available to customers all over the world, thereby creating a market that otherwise would not exist. Page 15 In addition, marketing isn't useful only in countries with well-developed economies. It can also jump-start the economies of less developed countries by actually putting buyers and sellers together to create new markets. A Piece of Africa, for example, buys art from African artis ts and, through its website, makes that art available to customers all over the world, thereby creating a market that otherwise would not exist.Customers become exposed to an array of products from various countries that previously would have b een available only through expensive galleries, and the tribal artists can spend their earnings locally, which stimulates the local economy. Furthermore, A Piece of Africa donates 3 percent of the online sales to goodwill projects in Africa, which solidifies its soci ally responsible appeal. Marketing is often designed to benefit an entire industry, which can help many firms simultaneously. The dairy industry has used a very successful, award-winning campaign with its slogan â€Å"Got Milk? aimed at different target segments. This campaign has not only created high levels of awareness about the 16 benefits of drinking milk, but also increased milk consumption in various target segments, possibly through the use of celebrities such as Hilary Duff and athletes such as soccer s uperstar David Beckham. Overall, this campaign benefits the entire dairy industry, not just one dairy farmer. The dairy industry's â€Å"Got Milk? † ad campaign has created high levels of awareness about the benefits of drinking milk and has increased milk consumption by using celebrities such as David Beckham in its ads.Now that we've examined what marketing is and how it creates value, let's consider how it fits into the world of commerce, as well as into society in general. Page 16 1. LO3 Marketing Helps Create Value Marketing didn't get to its current prominence among individuals, corporations, and society at large overnight. Over the last 100 years, marketing has evolved from an activity designed simply to produce and sell products to an integral business function aimed at creating value for consumers and the company's shareholders.As we have examined marketing practices over the years, we have observed four different marketing orientations or philosophies: product orientation, sales orientation, market orientation, and value-based orientation. Product Orientation Product-oriented companies focus on developing and distributing innovative products with little concern about whet her the products best satisfy customers’ needs. This philosophy is best illustrated by a famous quote made around the turn of the twentieth century by HenryFord, the founder of Ford Motor Company, who remarked, â€Å"Customers can have any colour they want so long as it's black. † Manufacturers believed that a good product would sell itself, and retail stores typically were considered places to hold the merchandise until a consumer wanted it. Companies with a product orientation generally start out by thinking about the product they want to build; they try selling the product after it is developed rather than starting with an understanding of the customers’ needs and then developing a product to satisfy those needs.Sales Orientation Companies that have a sales orientation basically view marketing as a selling function where companies try to sell as many of their products as possible rather than focus on making products consumers really want. These firms typicall y depend on heavy doses of personal selling and advertising to attract new customers. Companies with a selling orientation tend to fo cus on making a sale or on each transaction rather than building long-term customer relationships. They generally believe that if consumers try their products, they will like them.Market Orientation Market-oriented companies start out by focusing on what consumers want and need before they design, make, or attempt to sell their products and services. They believe that customers have choice and make purchase decisions based on several factors, including quality, convenience, and price. Basically, the â€Å"customer is king,† and the market is a buyer's market since consumers wield tremendous power. In this orientation, marketers’ role is to understand and respond to the needs of consumers and to do everything possible to satisfy them.Value-Based Orientation Most successful firms today are market oriented. 17 That means they have gone beyo nd a production or sales orientation and attempt to discover and satisfy their customers’ needs and wants. Better marketing firms recognized that there was more to good marketing than simply discovering and providing what consumers wanted and needed; to compete successfully, they would have to give their customers greater value than their competitors. 18 Value reflects the relationship of benefits to costs, or what you get for what you give.In a marketing context, customers seek a fair return in goods and/or services for their hard -earned money and scarce time. They want products or services that meet their specific needs or wants and that are offered at competitive prices. The challenge for firms is to find out what consumers are looking for and to attempt to provide those goods and services but still make a profit. Every value-based marketing firm must implement its strategy according to what its customers value.Depending on the specific product or service for sale, these valuable benefits could include speed, convenience, size, accuracy, price, cost-savings, or user-friendliness. Sometimes providing greater value means providing a lot of merchandise for relatively little mone y, such as Subway's foot-long subs for $5 or a diamond for 40 percent off the suggested retail price at Costco. But value is in the eye of the beholder and doesn't always come inexpensively. Satisfied Louis Vuitton customers probably believe the Vuitton clothing, bags, or shoes they buy are good value because they have received many benefits for a reasonable price.Similarly, teenagers may be willing to pay a premium for Apple's iPhone because of its extraordinary design and packaging, even though cheaper s ubstitutes are available. This is the power of marketing in general and branding in particular. Value-based marketing is examined in greater detail in the following section; however, the story of Carmen Creek described in Entrepreneurial Marketing 1. 1 illustrates aspects of value beyond monetary cost and price. Page 17 Entrepreneurial Marketing 1. 1 Carmen Creek: Meeting Customer Needs19In 2002, Kelly Long, Pieter Spinder, and Dean Andres joined forces to create Carme n Creek Gourmet Meats. The award-winning, Calgary-based company specializes in the marketing and distribution of grade A Canadian bison, which the Heart and Stroke Foundation's Health Check approves as a healthy substitute for red meat. Carmen Creek saw its revenues increase 15 times during its first year of operation and 18 times during its second year. The company was a finalist for the 2008 Ernst and Young Entrepreneur of the Year Award and won the 2008 Calgary Chamber of Commerce RBC Small Business of the Year Award.Carmen Creek attributes its success to its distinctive marketing strategy: it positions itself as a bison-specific producer with a commitment to quality and consistency to reach targeted markets. Carmen Creek brings value to its three target markets, consumers, retailers ( e. g. , Safeway Canada), and foodservice businesses (e. g. , Moxie's Classic Grill restaurant), in a variety of ways. Consumers can choose from an assortment of fresh and frozen bison meat, including bison burgers, bison steak, and prime rib.Retailers are provided with support in the form of recipe cards, a 1-800 help line, shelf danglers, shelf talkers, and in-store sampling booths. Foodservices customers are offered support through menu inserts, table toppers, and server incentives. In addition, Carmen Creek promises all of its customers exquisite gourmet bison meat that is grown, processed, and delivered using appropriate animal health practices, exceptional attention to detail, and superior safety. It provides all of this whi le guaranteeing the best prices that it can offer.Carmen Creek's quality products and competitive pricing is allowing it to successfully satisfy the demands of North American and European customers. Its commitment to building a value chain that embraces pro ducers, processors, and customers is allowing Carmen Creek to break into new markets. On February 27, 2007, Carmen Creek acquired all the shares of Grande Prairie Bison Company, along with its strong European customer base and distribution network. This acquisition opened the door for Carmen Creek to expand its European presence.The company is actively pursuing new European markets in Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands to add to its list of international customers, which currently includes Australia and Germany. Carmen Creek Gourmet Meats brings value to its customers beyond monetary cost and price. Carmen Creek carefully focuses the distribution of its investments in Canada, the United States, and Europe. Couple this with its diversified product offerings under a consistent and supported brand, and you get a recipe for success.The company's approach to market development and its unique strategy has launched Carmen Creek Gourmet Meats to the top of both Profit 50’s list of Canada's emerging growth companies and Profit 100’s list of Canada's fastest growing companies. What Is Value-Based Marketing? Consumers make explicit and/or implicit trade-offs between the perceived benefits of a product or service and their costs. Customers naturally seek options that provide the greatest benefits at the lowest costs. Marketing firms attempt to find the most desirable balance between providing benefits to customers and keeping their costs down, as illustrated in Exhibit 1. . EXHIBIT 1. 6 Value Page 18 To better understand value and to develop a value-based marketing orientation, a business must also understand what customers view as the key benefits of a given product or service and how to improve on them. For example, some benefits of staying at a Four Points by Sheraton hotel might include the high level of service quality provided by the personnel , the convenience of booking the room via Sheraton's website, and the overall quality of the room and me als offered. In broader terms, some critical benefits may be service quality, convenience, and merchandise quality.The other side of the value equation entails the firm's ability to provide either a better product/service mix at the same cost or the same level of quality and convenience for a lower cost. The customer's potential cost elements, in terms of value-based marketing strategies, for the Sheraton hotel in our example would include the price of the room and meals, the time it takes to book a room or check in at the hotel, and the risk of arriving at the hotel and finding it overbooked. How Firms Compete on the Basis of Value W ith such a simple formula, marketers should be able to deliver value consistently, right? Well, not exactly.In today's quickly changing world, consistent ly creating and delivering value is quite difficult. Consumer perceptions change quickly, competitors constantly enter markets, and global pressures continually reshape opportunities. Thus, marketers must keep a vigilant eye on the marketplace so they can adjust their offerings to meet customer needs and keep ahead of their competition. Value-based marketing, however, isn't just about creating strong products and services; it should be at the core of every firm's functions. For example, W almart does not serve those customers who are looking to impress their friends with conspicuous consumption.Rather, this store is for people who want convenient one-stop shopping and low prices—and on those values, it consistently delivers. But good value is not limited to just low prices. Although Walmart carries low-priced pots, pans, and coffee pots, cooking enthusiasts may prefer the product selection, quality, and expert sales assistance at a Paderno outlet. The prices there aren't as low as at Walmart, but Paderno customers believe they are receiving good value when they shop there because of the selection, quality, and service they receive.Even nonprofit organizations need to focu s on creating value to ensure the services they provide to stakeholders are of high quality while also minimizing the total fundraising required. How Firms Become Value-Driven Firms become value-driven by focusing on three activities (see Exhibit 1. 7). First, they share information about their customers and competitors across their own organization and with other firms that might be involved in getting the product or service to the marketplace, such as manufacturers and transportation companies.Second, they strive to balance their customers’ benefits and costs. Third, they concentrate on building relationships with customers. EXHIBIT 1. 7 Value-Oriented Firms Page 19 Sharing Information In a value-based, market-oriented firm, marketers share information about customers and competitors that has been collected through customer relationship management, and integrate it across the firm's various departments.The fashion designers for Zara, the Spain -based fashion retailer, for i nstance, collect purchase information and research customer trends to determine what their customers will want to wear in the next few weeks; simultaneously, the logisticians —those persons in charge of getting the merchandise to the stores —use the same purchase history to forecast sales and allocate appropriate merchandise to individual stores. Sharing and coordinating such information represents a critical success factor for any firm.Imagine what might happen if Zara's advertising department were to plan a special promotion but not share its sales projections with those people in charge of creating the merchandise or getting it to stores. Fashion designers for Zara, the Spain-based fashion retailer, collect purchase information and research customer trends to determine what their customers will want to wear in the next few weeks. They share this information with other departments to forecast sales and coordinate deliveries.Balancing Benefits with Costs Value-oriente d marketers constantly measure the benefits that customers perceive against the cost of their offering. In this task, they use a vailable customer data to find opportunities in which they can better satisfy their customers’ needs and in turn develop long -term loyalties. Such a value-based orientation has helped Canadian Tire and Walmart outperform other department stores, and WestJet Airlines and Southwest Airlines outperform mainstream carriers.Also, as noted in the chapter vignette, RIM offers its customers not only the innovative, feature -packed portfolio of BlackBerry products, but also high-quality customer service at a competitive price. By establishing contracts with wireless carriers such as AT&T and BellSouth, it gained a solid footing before competitors such as Nokia entered the market. RIM's marketing savvy in making customer value the centrepiece of its strategy is one of the reasons why it has been able to beat the competition. To provide a great value, U. K. b ased easyJet offers no food service and generally flies to and from out-ofthe-way airports. Until recently, it sometimes cost more to fly within Europe than to fl y from the United States to Europe. 20 But low-frills, low-cost carriers such as Ryanair and easyJet, modelled on Southwest Airlines and JetBlue Airways, now offer customers what they want: cheap intra -Europe airfares. Like their American counterparts, Ryanair and easyJet offer no food service and generally fly to and from out -of-the-way airports, such as Stansted, which is about 55 kilometres northeast of London.But many customers find value despite such minor inconveniences. Consider, for example, the Lon don to Salzburg, Austria, route for $65 or the London to Sweden flight for $70. Values such as these are also what have given low -cost carriers in the United States approximately 25 percent of the market share. They are so popular that conventional airlines have started their own low-frills/low-cost airlines: Singapo re Airlines provides Tiger Airways and Australia's Qantas offers Jetstar. Page 20 1. LO4Building Relationships with Customers During the past decade or so, marketers have begun to realize that they need to think about their customer orientation in terms of relationships rather than 21 transactions. A transactional orientation regards the buyer–seller relationship as a series of individual transactions, so anything that happened before or after the transaction is of little importance. For example, used-car sales typically are based on a transactional approach; the seller wants to get the highest price for the car, the buyer wants to get he lowest price, and neither expects to do business w ith the other again. A relational orientation, in contrast, is based on the philosophy that buyers and sellers should develop a long-term relationship. According to this idea, the lifetime profitability of the relationship matters, not how much money is made during each transaction. For exam ple, UPS works with its shippers to develop efficient transportation solutions. Over time, UPS becomes part of the fabric of the shippers’ organizations, and their operations become intertwined. In this scenario, UPS an d its shippers have developed a long-term relationship.Firms that practise value-based marketing also use a process known as customer relationship management (CRM), a business philosophy and set of strategies, programs, and systems that focus on 22 identifying and building loyalty among the firm's most valued customers. Firms that employ CRM systematically collect information about their customers’ needs and then use that information to target their best customers with the products, services, and special pr omotions that appear most important to those customers. 1. LO5 Why Is Marketing Important? Marketing was once only an afterthought to production.Early marketing philosophy went something like this: â€Å"We've made it; now how do we get rid of it? à ¢â‚¬  Today, marketing has evolved into a major business function that crosses all areas of a firm or organization, as illustrated in Exhibit 1. 8. Marketing works with other departments, such as research and development (R&D), engineering, and production, to ensure that high-quality, innovative products that meet customers’ needs are available in the right quantity, at the right price, and at the right pla ce, that is, wherever they want to purchase it.It creates mutually valuable relationships between the company and its suppliers, distributors, and other external firms that are involved in the firm's marketing process. It identifies those elements that lo cal customers value and makes it possible for the firm to expand globally. Marketing has had a significant impact on consumers as well. Without marketing, it would be difficult for any of us to learn about new products and services. You may even decide to pursue a career in marketing after you graduate.Even if you pursue a career in another field, marketing knowledge will help you market yourself in ways that could land you your dream job. EXHIBIT 1. 8 Importance of Marketing These brands can be found in many countries. Marketing Expands Firms’ Global Presence A generation ago, Coca-Cola was available in many nations, but Levi's and most other American and Canadian brands were not. But today most jeans, including those by Levi Strauss & Co. a nd Parasuco, are made in places other than Canada and the United States and are available nearly everywhere.Thanks to MTV and other global entertainment venues,cheap foreign travel, and the Internet, you share many of your consumption behaviours with college and university students in countries all over the globe. The best fashions, music, and even food trends disseminate rapidly around the world. Starbucks has adjusted its menu to meet customer wants in the Japanese market more effectively. Page 21 Take a look at your next shopping bag. Whether it cont ains groceries or apparel, you will find goods from many countries: produce from Mexico, jeans from Italy, T -shirts from China.Global manufacturers and retailers continue to make inroads into the Canadian market. Companies such as Honda, Sony, and Heineken sell as well in Canada as they do in their home countries. Sweden's fashion retailer H 23 operates in 38 countries, including Canada. Its upscale competitor Spain's Zara operates in more than 24 80 countries, including Canada. Starbucks even adjusted its menu to meet customer wants in the Japanese market more effectively. How does marketing contribute to a company's successful global expansion? Understanding customers is critical.Without the knowledge that can be gained by analyzing new customers’ needs and wants on a segment-by-segment, region-by-region basis—one of marketing's main tasks—it would be difficult for a firm to expand globally. Power of the Internet 1. 1 shows how the Internet has expanded the r each of marketers and changed marketing practices. Page 22 Marketing Is Pervasive Across the Organization In value-based marketing firms, the marketing department works seamlessly with other functional areas of the company to design, promote, price, and distribute products.Consider the Scion, a car and brand designed by Toyota for the less affluent youth market, which sometimes has been referred to as 26 Generation Y. Scion's marketing department worked closely with engineers to ensure that the new car exceeded customers’ expectations in terms of design but remained affordable. The co mpany also coordinated the product offering with an innovative communications strategy. Because Generation Y is famous for its resistance to conventional advertising, Scion introduced a virtual road race in which participants received mileage points for sending Scion e-cards.The more â€Å"places† they visited, the more mileage points they received. At the end of the competition, each dri ver's points were totalled and compared with other racers’ scores. The driver with the most points won an onboard navigation system worth more than $2000. In addition, when Scion was a new car, the marketing department worked closely with the distribution department to ensure that advertising and promotions reached all distributors’ territories and that distribution existed where those promotions occurred.Thus, marketing was responsible for coordinating all these aspects of supply and demand. Toyota introduced a virtual road race in which participants received mileage points for sending Scion e cards. At the end of the competition, the driver with the most points won an onboard navigation system worth more than $2000. Page 23 Power of the Internet 1. 1 Internet Marketing: Past, Present, and Future25 The Internet was released for commercial use in 1993. Immediately, the media, entrepreneurs, and others began to hype it as the â€Å"new marketing channel† that wou ld revolutionize business practices.For entrepreneurs and investors, it was a time of euphoria, experimentation, and instantaneous wealth; for established companies, it was a time of uncertainty and fear. Many traditional businesses with established brands thought that the Internet was just another fad; while others did not quite understand how to integrate it with their existing businesses. Fear of making mistakes that could harm their brands led many companies to create â€Å"online† businesses that were separate from their core â€Å"bricks -and-mortar† or â€Å"offline† businesses.For instance, Procter & Gamble's online business was called reflect. com and Kmart's company in the United States was called bluelight. com. The apprehension that established marketers had for jumping on the dot-com bandwagon seemed justified when in 2000 the explosive growth of Internet businesses collap sed within a couple of months. The dot-com bust provided established marketer s with breathing room to reflect on how they could incorporate the Internet into their business and marketing strategies.Around 2004, almost a decade later, marketers came to realize that an effective marketing strategy requires an integration of online and offline businesses to provide customers with a seamless â€Å"multi-channel marketing† experience. W hen marketers initially pursued Internet marketing, they were mostly excited abou t designing the best website by using the latest publishing software and technology available. Although most websites were originally text-based, marketers quickly adopted multimedia technologies since their goal was to create an appealing website that would attract visitors and keep them on the site.Little thought was given as to whether or not customers needed or valued these features. The early focus on the technology and the product is reminiscent of the product-oriented market era of early twentieth century. Two decades later, in 2012, we observe that although websites are much more complex technologically, their focus has shifted to the consumer: that is, how marketers can use the technology to identify and fulfill customer needs and deliver the best customer value while generating profits. This focus seems more in line with the value based orientation described in the book.But, how did we get from a technology focus to a value -based focus? What were some of the steps along the way? From Static Websites to Social Media to Mobile Marketing Rewind to 1993 when the commercial Internet came into being; websites were static, text-based sites, which marketers used to â€Å"push† information to customers about their products and companies. Customer s wishing to make a purchase had to call a telephone number listed on the website. Shortly thereafter, email marketing became widespread, and the main focus was on how to create the perfect email and ensure it reached the target customers.Second-generation websites beca me more dynamic and interactive; that is, they provided information to customers’ requests in real time, made greater use of multimedia technology, and offered modest interactivity. The next development was e-commerce capability, that is, the ability to order and pay for goods and services online. This capability laid the foundations for the explosive growth of online marketing since marketers could now reach customers worldwide through their online stores and customers could order products and services anytime, anywhere.The era of instant gratification and ultimate shopping convenience seemed closer than ever. E-commerce transactions grew exponentially year after year, and they continue to grow unabated. B2C, B2B, and C2C via auction sites b ecame possible and grew exponentially. The next phase in the evolution of Internet marketing was personalization and customization, where customers were given the ability to customize the look and feel of a website, and the products show n, to suit their preferences.Today, thanks to social networking sites such as Myspace, YouTube, Facebook, Flickr, and Twitter, and portable devices such as smartphones, social media and mobile marketing is all the rage. What will be next? The Internet is much more sophisticated and complex now than it was in the 1990s. It has changed and will continue to change. No one can predict the transform